OCR GCSE COMBINED SCIENCE: TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE SUITE

The topics listed below are for OCR GCSE Combined Science – Twenty First Century Science Suite, with exam codes:

-Combined Science B (Twenty First Century Science) (Foundation Tier): J260 F

– Combined Science B (Twenty First Century Science) (Higher Tier): J260 H The list provides everything you need for your OCR GCSE Combined Science

– Twenty First Century Science Suite exam, with topics broken in to the headings given by the exam board. More information is available here

[https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/gcse/twenty-first-century-science-suite-combined-science-b-j260-from-2016/specification-at-a-glance/]

For samples questions and papers, please click this linkL

[https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/gcse/twenty-first-century-science-suite-combined-science-b-j260-from-2016/assessment/]

Everything you need to know about your GCSE (9-1) Combined Science – Twenty First Century Science Suite specifications can be found here.

You and your genes

What is the genome and what does it do?

Teaching and learning narrative

All organisms contain genetic material. Genetic material contains instructions that control how cells and organisms develop and function. Most of an organism’s characteristics depend on these instructions and are modified by interaction with the environment. Genetic material in plant and animal cells is located in the nucleus, one of the main sub-cellular structures. In organisms whose cells do not have a nucleus (e.g. bacteria) the genetic material is located in the cytoplasm. 

All the genetic material of a cell is the organism’s genome. In most organisms the genome is packaged into chromosomes. Chromosomes are long molecules of DNA. Genes are sections of this DNA. In the cells of plants and animals, chromosomes occur in pairs.

 The two chromosomes in a pair each carry the same genes. The two versions of each gene in the pair are called alleles, and can be the same or different. A different version of a gene is a genetic variant. The genotype of an organism is the combination of alleles it has for each gene; the phenotype is the characteristic that results from this combination and interaction with the environment. Genes tell a cell how to make proteins by joining together amino acids in a particular order.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. a) explain how the nucleus and genetic material of eukaryotic cells (plants and animals) and the genetic material, including plasmids, of prokaryotic cells are related to cell functions 

b) describe how to use a light microscope to observe a variety of plant and animal cells 

2. describe the genome as the entire genetic material of an organism 

3. describe DNA as a polymer made up of nucleotides, forming two strands in a double helix 

4. describe simply how the genome and its interaction with the environment influence the development of the phenotype of an organism, including the idea that most characteristics depend on instructions in the genome and are modified by interaction of the organism with its environment i Learners are not expected to describe epigenetic effects 

5. explain the terms chromosome, gene, allele, variant, genotype and phenotype 

6. explain the importance of amino acids in the synthesis of proteins, including the genome as instructions for the polymerisation of amino acids to make proteins 

How is genetic information inherited?

Teaching and learning narrative

During sexual reproduction, each offspring inherits two alleles of each gene; one allele from each gamete. The two alleles can be two copies of the same genetic variant (homozygous) or different variants (heterozygous). A variant can be dominant or recessive, and the combination of alleles determines what effect the gene has.  

Genetic diagrams such as family trees and Punnett squares can be used to model and predict outcomes of the inheritance of characteristics that are determined by a single gene (IaS3). However, most characteristics depend on the instructions in multiple genes and other parts of the genome. 

A human individual’s sex is determined by the inheritance of genes located on sex chromosomes; specifically, genes on the Y chromosome trigger the development of testes.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain the terms gamete, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant and recessive 

2. explain single gene inheritance, including dominant and recessive alleles and use of genetic diagrams 

3. predict the results of single gene crosses

4. use direct proportions and simple ratios in genetic crosses M1c 

5. use the concept of probability in predicting the outcome of genetic crosses M2e

6. recall that most phenotypic features are the result of multiple genes rather than single gene inheritance i Learners are not expected to describe epistasis and its effects

7. describe sex determination in humans 

How can and should gene technology be used?

Teaching and learning narrative

Comparing the genomes of individuals with and without a disease can help to identify alleles associated with the disease. Once identified, we can test for these alleles in adults, children, fetuses and embryos, to investigate their risk of developing certain diseases. We can also assess the risk of adults passing these allelels to their offspring (including the identification of ‘carriers’ of recessive alleles). Genetic testing can also help doctors to prescribe the correct drugs to a patient (‘personalised medicine’), by testing for alleles that affect how drugs will work in their body. 

Another application of gene technology is genetic engineering, in which the genome is modified to change an organism’s characteristics. Genetic engineering has been used to introduce characteristics useful to humans into organisms such as bacteria and plants. 

Gene technology could help us provide for the needs of society, by improving healthcare and producing enough food for the growing population. But with genetic testing we must also consider how the results will be used and by whom, and the risks of false positives/ negatives and miscarriage (when sampling amniotic fluid). With genetic engineering there are concerns about the spread of inserted genes to other organisms, the need for long-term studies to check for adverse reactions, and moral concerns about modifying genomes and the application of the technology to modify humans (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. Discuss the potential importance for medicine of our increasing understanding of the human genome, including the discovery of alleles associated with diseases and the genetic testing of individuals to inform family planning and healthcare  

2. describe genetic engineering as a process which involves modifying the genome of an organism to introduce desirable characteristics 

3. describe the main steps in the process of genetic engineering including: 

• isolating and replicating the required gene(s) 

• putting the gene(s) into a vector (e.g. a plasmid) 

• using the vector to insert the gene(s) into cells 

• selecting modified cells 

4. explain some of the possible benefits and risks, including practical and ethical considerations, of using gene technology in modern agriculture and medicine 

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Keeping Healthy

What are the causes of disease?

Teaching and learning narrative

The health of most organisms will be compromised by disease during their lifetime. Physical and mental health can be compromised by disease caused by infection by a pathogen, an organism’s alleles or lifestyle, or trauma. Disease damages host cells and impairs functions, causing symptoms. However, an unhealthy organism may not always show symptoms of disease, particularly during the ‘incubation period’ after infection with a pathogen. 

Some diseases are communicable: they are caused by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protists and fungi, and can be spread from organism to organism in bodily fluids, on surfaces, and in food and water. Other diseases are non-communicable: they are caused by genetic and/or lifestyle factors and cannot be spread from one organism to another. 

Some common diseases illustrate different types of pathogen and common routes of spread and infection, including: 

In humans: influenza (viral), Salmonella food poisoning (bacterial), Athlete’s foot (fungal), malaria (protist) and HIV (viral STI). 

In plants: tobacco mosaic virus (viral), ash dieback (fungal) and crown gall disease (bacterial).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the relationship between health and disease

2. describe different types of diseases (including communicable and non-communicable diseases) 

3. explain how communicable diseases (caused by viruses, bacteria, protists and fungi) are spread in animals and plants 

4. describe common human infections including influenza (viral), Salmonella (bacterial), Athlete’s foot (fungal) and malaria (protist) and sexually transmitted infections in humans including HIV/AIDS (viral) 

5. describe plant diseases including tobacco mosaic virus (viral), ash dieback (fungal) and crown gall disease (bacterial)

How do organisms protect themselves against pathogens?

Teaching and learning narrative

Humans have physical, chemical and microbial defences that make it difficult for pathogens to enter the blood. These include the skin and mucus, stomach acid, saliva, tears, and bacteria in the gut. 

These defences are always present, and are not produced in response to any specific pathogen. Platelets help to seal wounds to reduce the chance of pathogens entering the blood. 

The immune system of the human body works to protect us against disease caused by pathogens.

 If a pathogen enters the blood, white blood cells destroy it. White blood cells have receptors that bind to antigens on pathogens, to distinguish between non-self and self. Different types of white blood cell are adapted to either ingest and digest pathogens, or release chemicals that break them down, or produce antibodies to disable them or tag them for attack by other white blood cells. An antibody is specific for (only binds to) a particular antigen. Once the body has made antibodies against a pathogen, memory cells stay in the body to make antibodies quickly upon re-infection (immunity).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe non-specific defence systems of the human body against pathogens, including examples of physical, chemical and microbial defences

2. explain how platelets are adapted to their function in the blood 

3. explain the role of the immune system of the human body in defence against disease 

4. explain how white blood cells are adapted to their functions in the blood, including what they do and how it helps protect against disease

How can we prevent the spread of infection?

Teaching and learning narrative

Reducing and preventing the spread of communicable diseases in animals and plants helps prevent loss of life, destruction of habitats and loss of food sources. For plants, strategies include regulating the movement of plant material, sourcing healthy plants and seeds, destroying infected plants, polyculture, crop rotation and chemical and biological control. For animals, including humans, strategies include vaccination (to establish immunity), contraception, hygiene, sanitation, sterilising wounds, restricting travel, and destruction of infected animals. 

The likely effectiveness, benefits, risks and cost of each strategy must be considered, and an individual’s right to decide balanced with what is best for society (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain how the spread of communicable diseases may be reduced or prevented in animals and plants, to include a minimum of one common human infection, one plant disease and sexually transmitted infections in humans including HIV/AIDS 

2. explain the use of vaccines in the prevention of disease, including the use of safe forms of pathogens and the need to vaccinate a large proportion of the population 

How can lifestyle, genes and the environment affect health?

Teaching and learning narrative

Whether or not a person develops a non-communicable disease depends on many factors, including the alleles they inherited and aspects of their lifestyle. The interaction of genetic and lifestyle factors can increase or decrease the risk.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. a) describe how the interaction of genetic and lifestyle factors can increase or decrease the risk of developing non-communicable human diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, many forms of cancer, some lung and liver diseases and diseases influenced by nutrition, including type 2 diabetes
b) describe how to practically investigate the effect of exercise on pulse rate and recovery rate 

2. use given data to explain the incidence of non-communicable diseases at local, national and global levels with reference to lifestyle factors, including exercise, diet, alcohol and smoking 

3. in the context of data related to the causes, spread, effects and treatment of disease: 

a) translate information between graphical and numerical forms M4a 

b) construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms M4a, M4c 

c) understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data M2d 

d) use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables M2g 

4. describe interactions between different types of disease 

 

How can we treat disease?

Teaching and learning narrative

Humans have developed medicines, including antibiotics, which can control or eliminate the cause of some diseases and/or reduce the length or severity of symptoms. 

For non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, strategies that lower the risk of developing the disease have benefits compared to treatments administered later. 

Many factors need to be considered when prescribing treatments, including the likely effectiveness, risk of adverse reactions, patient consent, and the costs and benefits to the patient and others (IaS4). 

Studying the genomes and proteins of pathogens and host cells can suggest targets for new medicines. Large libraries of chemicals are screened for their ability to affect a target. It is unlikely that a perfect medicine will be found during screening, but chemicals are selected for modification and further tests. 

All new medicines have to be tested before they are made widely available. Preclinical testing, for safety and effectiveness, uses animals and cultured human cells. Clinical testing uses healthy human volunteers to test for safety, and humans with the disease to test for safety and effectiveness. ‘Open-label’, ‘blind’ and ‘double-blind’ trials can be used. There are ethical questions around using placebos in tests on people with a disease (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain the use of medicines in the treatment of disease 

2. calculate cross-sectional areas of bacterial cultures and of clear zones around antibiotic discs on agar jelly using πr²

3. evaluate different strategies for lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease and treating it, including lifestyle changes, use of medicines and surgery 

4. describe the process of discovery and development of potential new medicines including preclinical and clinical testing 

Living Together – Food and Ecosystems

What happens during photosynthesis?

Teaching and learning narrative

Producers make glucose using photosynthesis. Some of the glucose is used as the fuel for cellular respiration, some is converted into starch and then stored, and the rest is combined with elements absorbed from the environment to make carbohydrates, lipids and proteins (biomass) for growth. 

Photosynthesis involves many chemical reactions, but can be summarised in two main stages. The first stage requires light and chlorophyll (located in chloroplasts in plant cells) to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. 

The hydrogen is transferred to the second stage, but the oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a waste product. The second stage combines carbon dioxide with hydrogen to make glucose. The reactions in photosynthesis and many other biological processes are catalysed by enzymes. 

The lock and key model can be used to explain enzyme action, and to make predictions about and explain the effects on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions when the substrate concentration, temperature and pH are changed (IaS3).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. a) describe the process of photosynthesis, including the inputs and outputs of the two mains stages and the requirement of light in the first stage, and describe photosynthesis as an endothermic process 

b) describe practical investigations into the requirements and products of photosynthesis PAGB4

2. explain how chloroplasts in plant cells are related to photosynthesis 

3. a) explain the mechanism of enzyme action including the active site, enzyme specificity and factors affecting the rate of enzyme catalysed reactions, including substrate concentration, temperature and pH 

b) describe practical investigations into the effect of substrate concentration, temperature and pH on the rate of enzyme controlled reactions M2b, M2f, M3d, M4a, M4b, M4c PAGB3

What happens during photosynthesis?

Teaching and learning narrative

Understanding of how factors affect enzyme activity helps to explain the effects of temperature and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis. The effect of light intensity is explained by the need for light to bring about reactions in photosynthesis. Light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the light source (the inverse square law); this helps to explain why the rate of photosynthesis changes with distance from a point light source.

Assessable learning outcomes

4. a) explain the effect of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis b) describe practical investigations into the effect of environmental factors on the rate of photosynthesis PAGB4

5. use the inverse square law to explain why the rate of photosynthesis changes with distance from a light source 

6. explain the interaction of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration in limiting the rate of photosynthesis, and use graphs depicting the effects 

7. in the context of the rate of photosynthesis: 

a) understand and use simple compound measures such as the rate of a reaction M1a, M1c 

b) translate information between graphical and numerical form M4a 

c) plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scales for axes M4a, M4c 

d) extract and interpret information from graphs, charts and tables M2c

How do producers get the substances they need?

Teaching and learning narrative

The ways in which photosynthetic organisms take in carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis, and release the waste product oxygen, illustrate the principles of diffusion and osmosis. Generally, molecules move from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration; the difference in concentration drives a change towards equal concentration. Carbon dioxide and oxygen molecules move by diffusion, through cell membranes in single-cellular (prokaryotic) producers, and through stomata and cell membranes in plants. Water molecules move by osmosis through cell membranes; projections from root cells (‘root hairs’) of plants increase the surface area for osmosis. 

The way in which photosynthetic organisms take in nitrogen (to make proteins) illustrates the process of active transport. Producers get nitrogen from nitrate ions (NO3–). Molecules of water and gases can diffuse through partially-permeable cell membranes but nitrate ions cannot; producers use energy from molecules of ATP to transport nitrate ions through the cell membrane by active transport. 

Plants do not have blood to transport substances around the organism; they have transport vessels formed from xylem and phloem. 

Water and ions (e.g. nitrate) in aqueous solution are moved through xylem from the roots and up the stem/trunk by transpiration, to replace water that evaporates from open stomata.

Sugars are moved through phloem from photosynthetic to non-photosynthetic tissues by translocation. Sugars are loaded into phloem by active transport, then water moves into the concentrated solution by osmosis and pushes the substances along the tube. 

The rate of water uptake by a plant can be affected by environmental factors. Light intensity and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis (and therefore the demand for water), while air movement and temperature affect the rate of water loss from aerial parts of the plant.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe some of the substances transported into and out of photosynthetic organisms in terms of the requirements of those organisms, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and mineral ions 

2. a) explain how substances are transported into and out of cells through diffusion, osmosis and active transport 

b) describe practical investigations into the processes of diffusion and osmosis i Learners are not expected to explain osmosis in terms of water potential 

3. explain how the partially permeable cell membranes of plant cells and prokaryotic cells are related to cell functions 

4. explain how water and mineral ions are taken up by plants, relating the structure of the root hair cells to their function 

5. a) explain how the structure of the xylem and phloem are adapted to their functions in the plant b) describe how to use a light microscope to observe the structure of the xylem and phloem PAGB1

6. a) describe the processes of transpiration and translocation, including the structure and function of
the stomata b) describe how to use a light microscope to observe the structure of stomata PAGB1
c) describe how to use a simple potometer i Learners are not expected to describe transpiration in
terms of tension or pressure, and are not expected to describe translocation in terms of water potential or hydrostatic pressure

7. a) explain the effect of a variety of environmental factors on the rate of water uptake by a plant, to include light intensity, air movement, and temperature b) describe practical investigations into the effect of environmental factors on the rate of water uptake by a plant 

8. in the context of water uptake by plants: a) use simple compound measures such as rate M1a, M1c b) carry out rate calculations M1a, M1c c) plot, draw and interpret appropriate graphs M4a, M4b, M4c, M4d d) calculate percentage gain and loss of mass M1c

How are organisms in an ecosystem interdependent?

Teaching and learning narrative

Producers take in carbon and nitrogen compounds from their environment and use them (along with oxygen, hydrogen and other elements) to make small organic molecules including sugars, fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids. These small molecules are used to make larger organic molecules, such as long-chain carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. The larger molecules are used to build new structures (e.g. membranes, organelles). 

Consumers can only get their supply of carbon and nitrogen compounds by eating producers (or other consumers that ate producers) and digesting the biomass. This releases the small molecules so they can be absorbed and then used to build biomass in the consumer. 

The transfer of biomass between organisms is one way in which the populations in a community are interdependent, and can be modelled using a food web (IaS3). 

The size of each population in a community is limited by predation and competition for food and other resources including space, water, light, shelter, mates, pollinators and seed dispersers. 

Substances essential to life, including water and carbon, cycle through the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems so that they can be used and reused by organisms. Water cycles through precipitation, food chains, transpiration, excretion, run-off, flow through streams/rivers/oceans, and evaporation. Carbon cycles through photosynthesis, food chains, cellular respiration, decomposition and combustion. Decomposition is catalysed by enzymes released by microorganisms.

Assessable learning outcomes

 1. a) explain the importance of sugars, fatty acids and glycerol, and amino acids in the synthesis and breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins 

b) describe the use of qualitative tests for biological molecules 

2. describe photosynthetic organisms as the main producers of food and therefore biomass for life on Earth 

3. describe some of the substances transported into organisms in terms of the requirements of those organisms, including dissolved food molecules 

4. describe different levels of organisation in an ecosystem from individual organisms to the whole ecosystem 

5. explain the importance of interdependence and competition in a community

6. recall that many different substances cycle through the abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem

7. explain the importance of the carbon cycle and the water cycle to living organisms 

8. explain the role of microorganisms in the cycling of substances through an ecosystem 

9. calculate the percentage of mass, in the context of the use and cycling of substances in ecosystems M1c

How are populations affected by the conditions in an ecosystem?

Teaching and learning narrative

The distribution and abundance of organisms in an ecosystem depends on abiotic and biotic factors. The size of one or more populations in a community may be affected if the environmental conditions change, or if a new substance, competitor, predator or pathogen is introduced. A substance can bioaccumulate in a food chain to toxic concentration, and some can cause eutrophication. A change in the size of a population will affect other populations in the same community. 

The distribution and abundance of organisms, and changing conditions, within an ecosystem can be investigated using techniques including: identification keys; transects and quadrats; capture, mark, release and recapture; sampling living indicators; and using instruments to measure abiotic factors such as temperature, light intensity, soil moisture and pH.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain how some abiotic and biotic factors affect communities, including environmental conditions, toxic chemicals, availability of food and other resources, and the presence of predators and pathogens 

2. describe how to carry out a field investigation into the distribution and abundance of organisms in an ecosystem and explain how to determine their numbers in a given area M2d PAGB2 

3. in the context of data related to organisms within a population: a) calculate arithmetic means M2b, M2f b) understand and use percentiles M1c c) plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scales for the axes M4a, M4c d) extract and interpret information from charts, graphs and tables M2c

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Using Food and Controlling Growth

What happens during cellular respiration?

Teaching and learning narrative

Consumers gain biomass from other organisms when they eat them. Some of this biomass is converted into molecules of glucose, the fuel for cellular respiration. 

Cellular respiration involves many chemical reactions and makes molecules of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of animal and plant cells, and in the cytoplasm of microorganisms. ATP is required for processes that are essential for life, including breakdown and synthesis of molecules, active transport and muscle contraction. 

Aerobic respiration breaks down glucose and combines the breakdown products with oxygen, making water and carbon dioxide (a waste product). 

In conditions of low or no oxygen (such as in human cells during vigorous exercise, plant root cells in waterlogged soil and bacteria in puncture wounds) anaerobic respiration occurs. There is a partial breakdown of glucose, producing fewer molecules of ATP. In animal cells and some bacteria, this produces lactic acid (a waste product). In plants and some microorganisms, including yeast, it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. compare the processes of aerobic and anaerobic respiration, including conditions under which they occur, the inputs and outputs, and comparative yields of ATP 

2. explain why cellular respiration occurs continuously in all living cells 

3. explain how mitochondria in eukaryotic cells (plants and animals) are related to cellular respiration 

4. describe cellular respiration as an exothermic process 

5. a) describe practical investigations into the effect of different substrates on the rate of respiration in yeast (PAG B4) b) carry out rate calculations for chemical reactions in the context of cellular respiration M1a, M1c 

How do we know about mitochondria and other cell structures?

Teaching and learning narrative

Scientific progress often relies on technological developments which enable new observations to be made. The invention of the electron microscope enabled us to observe cell organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts at much higher magnification than had previously been possible with light microscopes, and thus to develop explanations about how their structures relate to their roles in cellular processes (IaS3).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain how electron microscopy has increased our understanding of sub-cellular structures 

2. in the context of cells and sub-cellular structures: a) demonstrate an understanding of number, size and scale and the quantitative relationship between units M2a, M2h b) use estimations and explain when they should be used M1d c) calculate with numbers written in standard form M1b 

How do organisms grow and develop?

Teaching and learning narrative

Growth of multicellular organisms involves an increase in the number of body cells. All new cells are created from existing cells when they divide. New body cells are created as part of the cell cycle. During interphase the cell grows larger, the numbers of organelles increase, and each chromosome is copied; then during mitosis the chromosome copies separate, the nucleus divides, and the cell divides to produce two new cells that are genetically identical to one another. 

Cancer is a non-communicable disease in humans caused by changes in a person’s DNA. The changes cause a cell to divide many times by mitosis, which can create a tumour. Gametes are produced by meiosis, a different type of cell division. After interphase (during which the chromosome number has doubled), two meiotic divisions occur. Gametes contain half the number of chromosomes found in body cells (one chromosome from each pair). At fertilisation, maternal and paternal chromosomes pair up, so the zygote has the normal chromosome number. 

A zygote divides by mitosis to form an embryo. All of the cells in an embryo are initially identical and unspecialised; these are embryonic stem cells, and can become specialised to form any type of cell (differentiation) by switching genes off and on. Most cells in a human embryo become specialised after the eight cell stage. However, some (adult stem cells) remain unspecialised and can become specialised later to become many, but not all, types of cells. In plants, only cells in meristems undergo mitosis, producing unspecialised cells that can develop into any kind of plant cell. 

Assessable learning outcomes

1. a) describe the role of the cell cycle in growth, including interphase and mitosis b) describe how to use a light microscope to observe stages of mitosis PAGB1

2. describe cancer as the result of changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division 

3. explain the role of meiotic cell division in halving the chromosome number to form gametes, including the stages of interphase and two meiotic divisions i Learners are not expected to recall intermediate phases 

4. describe the function of stem cells in embryonic and adult animals and meristems in plants 

5. explain the importance of cell differentiation, in which cells become specialised by switching genes off and on to form tissues with particular functions

 

Should we use stem cells to treat damage and disease?

Teaching and learning narrative

Stem cells offer the potential to treat patients by replacing damaged tissues or cells. But the benefits must be weighed against risks and ethical concerns about the use and destruction of human embryos to collect embryonic stem cells. For these reasons, use of stem cells in research and medicine is subject to government regulation in many countries (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. discuss potential benefits, risks and ethical issues associated with the use of stem cells in medicine 

The human body – staying alive

Section B: Exploring poetry and Shakespeare (02)

Teaching and learning narrative

Oxygen, water and molecules from food are essential for chemical reactions in cells in the human body, including cellular respiration and synthesis of biomass. Carbon dioxide and urea are waste products that need to be removed from cells before they reach toxic levels. Moving these substances into, around and out of the body depends upon interactions between the circulatory, gaseous exchange, digestive and excretory systems. 

Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between blood in capillaries and air in alveoli. Water and dissolved food molecules are absorbed from the digestive system into blood in capillaries. Waste products including carbon dioxide and urea diffuse out of cells into the blood. Urea is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys into urine. Partially-permeable cell membranes regulate the movement of these substances; gases move across the membranes by diffusion, water by osmosis and some other substances by active transport. 

The heart, blood vessels, red blood cells and plasma are adapted to transport substances around the body. 

To sustain all the living cells inside humans and other multicellular organisms, exchange surfaces increase the surface area:volume ratio, and the circulatory system moves substances around the body to decrease the distance they have to diffuse to and from cells. 

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe some of the substances transported into and out of the human body in terms of the requirements of cells, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, dissolved food molecules and urea 

2. explain how the partially-permeable cell membranes of animal cells are related to diffusion, osmosis and active transport 

3. describe the human circulatory system, including its relationships with the gaseous exchange system, the digestive system and the excretory system 

4. explain how the structure of the heart is adapted to its function, including cardiac muscle, chambers and valves 

5. explain how the structures of arteries, veins and capillaries are adapted to their functions, including differences in the vessel walls and the presence of valves 

6. explain how red blood cells and plasma are adapted to their functions in the blood 

7. explain the need for exchange surfaces and a transport system in multicellular organisms in terms of surface area:volume ratio 

8. calculate surface area:volume ratios M1c, M5c

How does the nervous system help us respond to changes?

Teaching and learning narrative

In order to survive, organisms need to detect and respond to changes in their external and internal environments. The highly adapted structures of the nervous system facilitate fast, short-lasting responses to stimuli. 

In a stimulated neuron, an electrical impulse passes along the axon. Most axons have a fatty sheath to increase impulse transmission speed. An impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another across a synapse by the release of transmitter substances, which diffuse across the gap and bind to receptors on the next neuron, stimulating it. 

Reflexes provide rapid, involuntary responses without involving a processing centre, and are essential to the survival of many organisms. In some circumstances the brain can modify a reflex response via a neuron to the motor neuron of the reflex arc (e.g. to stop us dropping a hot object).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain how the components of the nervous system work together to enable it to function, including sensory receptors, sensory neurons, the CNS, motor neurons and effectors 

2. explain how the structures of nerve cells and synapses relate to their functions i Learners are not expected to explain nerve impulse transmission in terms of membrane potentials 

3. a) explain how the structure of a reflex arc, including the relay neuron, is related to its function b) describe practical investigations into reflex actions 

How do hormones control responses in the human body?

Teaching and learning narrative

The endocrine system of humans and other animals uses hormones, secreted by glands and transported by the blood, to enable the body to respond to external and internal stimuli. Hormones bind to receptors on effectors, stimulating a response. The endocrine system provides slower, longer-lasting responses than the nervous system. The production of hormones is regulated by negative feedback.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the principles of hormonal coordination and control by the human endocrine system

2. explain the roles of thyroxine and adrenaline in the body, including thyroxine as an example of a negative feedback system.

Why do we need to maintain a constant internal environment?

Teaching and learning narrative

Cells, enzymes and life processes function only in certain conditions, and optimally when conditions are within a narrow range. The maintenance of a constant internal environment is homeostasis, and depends on receptors, nerves, hormones and (often antagonistic) effectors to counteract changes.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain the importance of maintaining a constant internal environment in response to internal and external change 

2. in the context of maintaining a constant internal environment: a) extract and interpret data from graphs, charts and tables M2c b) translate information between numerical and graphical forms M4a

What role do hormones play in human reproduction?

Teaching and learning narrative

Hormones play a vital role in enabling sexual reproduction in humans: they regulate the menstrual cycle, including ovulation, in adult females. Without this process, sexual reproduction would not be possible. A number of hormones interact to control the menstrual cycle: 

• FSH causes the ovaries to develop a follicle containing an egg, and produce oestrogen 

• oestrogen causes the uterus wall to thicken 

• LH causes the follicle to release the egg (ovulation) 

• the remains of the follicle secrete progesterone 

• progesterone prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation of a fertilised egg 

• oestrogen and progesterone stop the production of LH and FSH 

• as progesterone levels fall, the thickened uterus wall breaks down and is discharged (menstruation). 

The menstrual cycle can be controlled artificially by the administration of hormones, often as an oral pill. The hormones prevent ovulation, so can be used as a contraceptive, but they do not decrease the risk of sexual transmission of communicable diseases (IaS4).

Hormones can also be used to artificially manipulate the menstrual cycle as a treatment in certain cases of female infertility in which follicle development and ovulation do not occur successfully. The use of hormones to treat infertility is an example of an application of science that has made a significant positive difference to people’s lives (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the role of hormones in human reproduction, including the control of the menstrual cycle

2. explain the interactions of FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone in the control of the menstrual cycle 

3. explain the use of hormones in contraception and evaluate hormonal and non-hormonal methods of contraception 

4. explain the use of hormones in modern reproductive technologies to treat infertility

What can happen when organs and control systems stop working?

Teaching and learning narrative

Blood sugar level is controlled by insulin and glucagon acting antagonistically. 

Type 1 diabetes arises when the pancreas stops making insulin; blood sugar can be regulated using insulin injections. 

Type 2 diabetes develops when the body no longer responds to its own insulin or does not make enough insulin; blood sugar can be regulated using diet (high in complex carbohydrates), exercise and insulin injections.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain how insulin controls the blood sugar level in the body 

2. explain how glucagon and insulin work together to control the blood sugar level in the body 

3. compare type 1 and type 2 diabetes and explain how they can be treated 

Life on Earth – past, present and future

How was the theory of evolution developed?

Teaching and learning narrative

The modern theory of evolution by natural selection combines ideas about genes, variation, advantage and competition to explain how the inherited characteristics of a population can change over a number of generations. It includes the ideas that: 

Mutations in DNA create genetic variants, which may be inherited. Most genetic variants do not affect phenotype, but those that do may increase an organism’s ability to survive in its environments and compete for resources (i.e. confer an advantage). Individuals with an advantage are more likely to reproduce; thus, by natural selection, the proportion of individuals possessing beneficial genetic variants increases in subsequent generations. 

A new species can arise if the organisms in a population evolve to be so different from their ancestors that they could no longer mate with them to produce fertile offspring. Speciation is more likely to occur when two populations of an organism are isolated. 

Charles Darwin noticed that the selective breeding of plants and animals had produced new varieties with many beneficial characteristics, quite different to their wild ancestors. Most of what we eat, and our ability to feed the growing human population, depends on selectively bred plants and animals. Darwin wondered whether a similar process of selection in nature could have created new species.

The theory of evolution by natural selection was developed to explain observations made by Darwin, Wallace and other scientists, including: 

• the production of new varieties of plants and animals by selective breeding 

• fossils with similarities and differences to living species 

• the different characteristics shown by isolated populations of the same species living in different ecosystems. 

The theory of evolution by natural selection illustrates how scientists continue to test a proposed explanation by making new observations and collecting new evidence, and how if the explanation is able to explain these it can become widely accepted by the scientific community (IaS3). For example, the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria can be explained by mutation, advantage and natural selection.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. state that there is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species 

2. recall that genetic variants arise from mutations, and that most have no effect on the phenotype, some influence phenotype and a very few determine phenotype 

3. explain how evolution occurs through natural selection of variants that give rise to phenotypes better suited to their environment 

4. explain the importance of competition in a community, with regard to natural selection 

5. describe evolution as a change in the inherited characteristics of a population over a number of generations through a process of natural selection which may result in the formation of new species 

6. explain the impact of the selective breeding of food plants and domesticated animals 

7. describe how fossils provide evidence for evolution 

8. describe modern examples of evidence for evolution including antibiotic resistance in bacteria 

How does our understanding of biology help us classify the diversity of organisms on Earth?

Teaching and learning narrative

The enormous diversity of organisms on Earth can be classified into groups on the basis of observed similarities and differences in their physical characteristics and, more recently, their DNA. We are more likely to classify species into the same group if there are lots of similarities in their genomes (i.e. if they have many genes, and genetic variants, in common). Genome analysis can also suggest whether different groups have a common ancestor, and how recently speciation occurred.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the impact of developments in biology on classification systems, including the use of DNA analysis to classify organisms 

Why is biodiversity threatened and how can we protect it?

Teaching and learning narrative

The biodiversity of the Earth, or of a particular area, is the combination of the diversity of living organisms, the diversity of genes these organisms have, and the diversity of ecosystems. 

The biodiversity of many areas is being reduced by activities related to increasing human population size, industrialisation and globalisation. Such interactions can result in ecosystems being damaged or destroyed, populations dying out, and species becoming extinct when conditions change more quickly than they can adapt. Humans can interact with ecosystems positively by using ecosystem resources in a sustainable way (at the same rate as they can be replaced), and by protecting and conserving biodiversity. 

All organisms, including humans, depend on other organisms and the environment for their survival. Protecting and conserving biodiversity will help ensure we can continue to provide the human population with food, materials and medicines. 

Biodiversity can be protected at different levels, including protection of individual species, protection of ecosystems, and control of activities that contribute to global climate change. Decisions about protecting and conserving biodiversity are affected by ecological, economic, moral and political issues (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe both positive and negative human interactions within ecosystems and explain their impact on biodiversity 

2. explain some of the benefits and challenges of maintaining local and global biodiversity 

3. extract and interpret information related to biodiversity from charts, graphs and tables M2c, M4a

Air and water

How has the Earth’s atmosphere changed over time, and why?

Teaching and learning narrative

The Earth, its atmosphere and its oceans are made up from elements and compounds in different states. The particle model can be used to describe the states of these substances and what happens to the particles when they change state. 

The particle model can be represented in different ways, but these are limited because they do not accurately represent the scale or behaviour of actual particles, they assume that particles are inelastic spheres, and they do not fully take into account the different interactions between particles. The formation of our early atmosphere and oceans, and the state changes involved in the water cycle, can be described using the particle model. 

Explanations about how the atmosphere was formed and has changed over time are based on evidence, including the types and chemical composition of ancient rocks, and fossil evidence of early life (IaS3). 

Explanations include ideas about early volcanic activity followed by cooling of the Earth resulting in formation of the oceans. The evolution of photosynthesising organisms, formation of sedimentary rocks, oil and gas, and the evolution of animals led to changes in the amounts of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere.

Our modern lifestyle has created a high demand for energy. Combustion of fossil fuels for transport and energy generation leads to emissions of pollutants. 

Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates directly harm human health. 

Some pollutants cause indirect problems to humans and the environment by the formation of acid rain and smog. Scientists monitor the concentration of these pollutants in the atmosphere and strive to develop approaches to maintaining air quality (IaS4). 

The combustion reactions of fuels and the formation of pollutants can be represented using word and symbol equations. The formulae involved in these reactions can be represented by models, diagrams or written formulae. The equations should be balanced. 

When a substance chemically combines with oxygen it is an example of oxidation. Combustion reactions are therefore oxidation. Some gases involved in combustion reactions can be identified by their chemical reactions.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall and explain the main features of the particle model in terms of the states of matter and change of state, distinguishing between physical and chemical changes and recognise that the particles themselves do not have the same properties as the bulk substances 

2. explain the limitations of the particle model in relation to changes of state when particles are represented by inelastic spheres  

3. use ideas about energy transfers and the relative strength of forces between particles to explain the different temperatures at which changes of state occur  4. use data to predict states of substances under given conditions 

4. use data to predict states of substances under given conditions

5. interpret evidence for how it is thought the atmosphere was originally formed

6. describe how it is thought an oxygen-rich atmosphere developed over time 

7. describe the major sources of carbon monoxide and particulates (incomplete combustion), sulfur dioxide (combustion of sulfur impurities in fuels), oxides of nitrogen (oxidation of nitrogen at high temperatures and further oxidation in the air) 

8. explain the problems caused by increased amounts of these substances and describe approaches to decreasing the emissions of these substances into the atmosphere including the use of catalytic converters, low sulfur petrol and gas scrubbers to decrease emissions  

9. use chemical symbols to write the formulae of elements and simple covalent compounds 

10. use the names and symbols of common elements and compounds and the principle of conservation of mass to write formulae and balanced chemical equations 

11. use arithmetic computations and ratios when balancing equations M1a, M1c

12. describe tests to identify oxygen, hydrogen and carbon dioxide PAGC2 

13. explain oxidation in terms of gain of oxygen

Why are there temperature changes in chemical reactions?

Teaching and learning narrative

When a fuel is burned in oxygen the surroundings are warmed; this is an example of an exothermic reaction. There are also chemical reactions that cool their surroundings; these are endothermic reactions. 

Energy has to be supplied before a fuel burns. For all reactions, there is a certain minimum energy needed to break bonds so that the reaction can begin. This is the activation energy. The activation energy, and the amount of energy associated with the reactants and products, can be represented using a reaction profile. 

Atoms are rearranged in chemical reactions. This means that bonds between the atoms must be broken and then reformed. Breaking bonds requires energy (the activation energy) whilst making bonds gives out energy. 

Energy changes in a reaction can be calculated if we know the bond energies involved in the reaction.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. distinguish between endothermic and exothermic reactions on the basis of the temperature change of the surroundings 

2. draw and label a reaction profile for an exothermic and an endothermic reaction, identifying activation energy 

3. explain activation energy as the energy needed for a reaction to occur 

4. interpret charts and graphs when dealing with reaction profiles 

5. calculate energy changes in a chemical reaction by considering bond breaking and bond making energies M1a, M1c, M1d 

6. carry out arithmetic computations when calculating energy changes M1a, M1c, M1d

What is the evidence for climate change, why is it occurring?

Teaching and learning narrative

Some electromagnetic radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the Earth warming it. 

The warm Earth emits infrared radiation which some gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, absorb and re-emit in all directions; this keeps the Earth warmer than it would otherwise be and is called the greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse effect the Earth would be too cold to support life. The proportion of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere has increased over the last 200 years as a result of human activities. There are correlations between changes in the composition of the atmosphere, consumption of fossil fuels and global temperatures over time. Although there are uncertainties in the data, most scientists now accept that recent climate change can be explained by increased greenhouse gas emissions. 

Patterns in the data have been used to propose models to predict future climate changes. As more data is collected, the uncertainties in the data decrease, and our confidence in models and their predictions increases (IaS3). 

Scientists aim to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, for example by reducing fossil fuel use and removing gases from the atmosphere by carbon capture and reforestation. These actions need to be supported by public regulation. Even so, it is difficult to mitigate the effect of emissions due to the very large scales involved. Each new measure may have unforeseen impacts on the environment, making it difficult to make reasoned judgments about benefits and risks (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the greenhouse effect in terms of the interaction of radiation with matter 

2. evaluate the evidence for additional anthropogenic causes of climate change, including the correlation between change in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and the consumption of fossil fuels, and describe the uncertainties in the evidence base 

3. describe the potential effects of increased levels of carbon dioxide and methane on the Earth’s climate including where crops can be grown, extreme weather patterns, melting of polar ice and flooding of low land 

4. describe how the effects of increased levels of carbon dioxide and methane may be mitigated, including consideration of scale, risk and environmental implications 

5. extract and interpret information from charts, graphs and tables M2c, M4a 

6. use orders of magnitude to evaluate the significance of data M2h

How can scientists help improve the supply of potable water?

Teaching and learning narrative

The increase in global population means there is a greater need for potable water. Obtaining potable water depends on the availability of waste, ground or salt water and treatment methods. 

Chlorine is used to kill microorganisms in water. The benefits of adding chlorine to water to stop the spread of waterborne diseases outweigh risks of toxicity. In some countries the chlorination of water is subject to public regulation, but other parts of the world are still without chlorinated water and this leads to a higher risk of disease (IaS4). 

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the principal methods for increasing the availability of potable water in terms of separation techniques used, including the ease of treating waste, ground and salt water including filtration and membrane filtration; aeration, use of bacteria; chlorination and distillation (for salt water)

2. describe a test to identify chlorine (using blue litmus paper) PAGC1

Chemical Patterns

How have our ideas about atoms developed over time?

Teaching and learning narrative

The modern model of the atom developed over time. Stages in the development of the model included ideas by the ancient Greeks (4 element ideas), Dalton (first particle model), Thomson (‘plum pudding’ model), Rutherford (idea of atomic nucleus) and Bohr (shells of electrons). Models were rejected, modified and extended as new evidence became available. The development of the atomic model involved scientists suggesting explanations, making and checking predictions based on their explanations, and building on each other’s work (IaS3).

The Periodic Table can be used to find the atomic number and relative atomic mass of an atom of an element, and then work out the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons. The number of electrons in each shell can be represented by simple conventions such as dots in circles or as a set of numbers (for example, sodium as 2.8.1). 

Atoms are small – about 10–10 m across, and the nucleus is at the centre, about a hundred-thousandth of the diameter of the atom. Molecules are larger, containing from two to hundreds of atoms. Objects that can be seen with the naked eye contain millions of atoms.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe how and why the atomic model has changed over time to include the main ideas of Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr

2. describe the atom as a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons, with the nuclear radius much smaller than that of the atom and with most of the mass in the nucleus 

3. recall relative charges and approximate relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons 

4. estimate the size and scale of atoms relative to other particles M1d 

5. recall the typical size (order of magnitude) of atoms and small molecules 

6. relate size and scale of atoms to objects in the physical world M1d 

7. calculate numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms, given atomic number and mass number of isotopes or by extracting data from the Periodic Table M1a

What does the Periodic Table tell us about elements?

Teaching and learning narrative

Elements in the modern Periodic Table are arranged in periods and groups, based on their atomic numbers. Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shells. The number of electron shells increases down a group but stays the same across a period. 

Mendeleev proposed the first arrangement of elements in the Periodic Table. Although he did not know about atomic structure, he reversed the order of some elements with respect to their masses, left gaps for undiscovered elements and predicted their properties. His ideas were accepted because when certain elements were discovered they fitted his gaps and the development of a model for atomic structure supported his arrangement. The later determination of the number of protons in atoms provided an explanation for the order he proposed (IaS3). 

The Periodic Table shows repeating patterns in the properties of the elements. Metals and non-metals can be identified by their position in the Periodic Table and by comparing their properties (physical properties including electrical conductivity). Properties of elements within a group show trends. 

The reactivity of Group 1 metals elements increases down the group, shown by their reactivity with moist air, water and chlorine. The Group 7 halogens are non-metals and become less reactive down the group. This is shown in reactions such as their displacement reactions with compounds of other halogens in the group.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain how the position of an element in the Periodic Table is related to the arrangement of electrons in its atoms and hence to its atomic number

2. describe how Mendeleev organised the elements based on their properties and relative atomic masses 

3. describe how discovery of new elements and the ordering elements by atomic number supports Mendeleev’s decisions to leave gaps and reorder some elements 

4. describe metals and non-metals and explain the differences between them on the basis of their characteristic physical and chemical properties, including melting point, boiling point, state and appearance, density, formulae of compounds, relative reactivity and electrical conductivity 

5. recall the simple properties of Group 1 elements including their reaction with moist air, water, and chlorine 

6. recall the simple properties of Group 7 elements including their states and colours at room temperature and pressure, their colours as gases, their reactions with Group 1 elements and their displacement reactions with other metal halides 

7. predict possible reactions and probable reactivity of elements from their positions in the Periodic Table 

8. describe experiments to identify the reactivity pattern of Group 7 elements including displacement reactions 

9. describe experiments to identify the reactivity pattern of Group 1 elements 

How do metals and non-metals combine to form compounds?

Teaching and learning narrative

Group 0 contains elements with a full outer shell of electrons. This arrangement is linked to their inert, unreactive properties. They exist as single atoms and hence are gases with low melting and boiling points. 

Group 1 elements combine with Group 7 elements by ionic bonding. This involves a transfer of electrons leading to charged ions. Atoms and ions can be represented using dot and cross diagrams as simple models (IaS3). Metals, such as Group 1 elements, lose electrons from the outer shell of their atoms to form ions with complete outer shells and with a positive charge. Non-metals, such as Group 7 elements, form ions with a negative charge by gaining electrons to fill their outer shell. The number of electrons lost or gained determines the charge on the ion. 

The properties of ionic compounds such as group 1 halides can be explained in terms of the ionic bonding. Positive ions and negative ions are strongly attracted together and form giant lattices. Ionic compounds have high melting points in comparison to many other substances due to the strong attraction between ions which means a large amount of energy is needed to break the attraction between the ions. They dissolve in water because their charges allow them to interact with water molecules. They conduct electricity when molten or in solution because the charged ions can move, but not when solid because the ions are held in fixed positions.

The arrangement of ions can be represented in both twodimensions and three-dimensions. These representations are simple models which have limitations, for example they do not fully show the nature or movement of the electrons or ions, the interaction between the ions, their arrangement in space, their relative sizes or scale (IaS3).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall the simple properties of Group 0 including their low melting and boiling points, their state at room temperature and pressure and their lack of chemical reactivity 

2. explain how observed simple properties of Groups 1, 7 and 0 depend on the outer shell of electrons of the atoms and predict properties from given trends down the groups  

3. explain how the reactions of elements are related to the arrangement of electrons in their atoms and hence to their atomic number  

4. explain how the atomic structure of metals and non-metals relates to their position in the Periodic Table  

5. describe the nature and arrangement of chemical bonds in ionic compounds  

6. explain ionic bonding in terms of electrostatic forces and transfer of electrons  

7. calculate numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions, given atomic number and mass number or by using the Periodic Table M1a  

8. construct dot and cross diagrams for simple ionic substances  

9. explain how the bulk properties of ionic materials are related to the type of bonds they contain 

10. use ideas about energy transfers and the relative strength of attraction between ions to explain the melting points of ionic compounds compared to substances with other types of bonding 

11. describe the limitations of particular representations and models of ions and ionically bonded compounds including dot and cross diagrams, and 3-D representations 

12. translate information between diagrammatic and numerical forms and represent three dimensional shapes in two dimensions and vice versa when looking at chemical structures for ionic compounds M4a, M5b 

How are equations used to represent chemical reactions?

Teaching and learning narrative

The reactions of Group 1 and Group 7 elements can be represented using word equations and balanced symbol equations with state symbols. 

The formulae of ionic compounds, including Group 1 and Group 7 compounds can be worked out from the charges on their ions. Balanced equations for reactions can be constructed using the formulae of the substances involved, including hydrogen, water, halogens (chlorine, bromine and iodine) and the hydroxides, chlorides, bromides and iodides (halides) of Group 1 metals.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. use chemical symbols to write the formulae of elements and simple covalent and ionic compounds 

2. use the formulae of common ions to deduce the formula of Group 1 and Group 7 compounds 

3. use the names and symbols of the first 20 elements, Groups 1, 7 and 0 and other common elements from a supplied Periodic Table to write formulae and balanced chemical equations where appropriate 

4. describe the physical states of products and reactants using state symbols (s, l, g and aq)

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Chemicals of the natural environment

How are the atoms held together in a metal?

Teaching and learning narrative

Chemists use a model of metal structure to explain the properties of metals (IaS3). In the model, metal atoms are arranged closely together in a giant structure, held together by attraction between the positively charged atoms and a ‘sea’ of negatively charged electrons. Metals are malleable and ductile because the ions can slide over each other but still be held together by the electrons; they conduct electricity and heat because their electrons are free to move; and they have high boiling points and melting points due to the strong electrostatic attraction between metal ions and the electrons. These properties of metals make them useful.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the nature and arrangement of chemical bonds in metals

2. explain how the bulk properties of metals are related to the type of bonds they contain 

How are metals with different reactivities extracted?

Teaching and learning narrative

Metals can be placed in an order of reactivity by looking at their reactions with water, dilute acid and compounds of other metals. The relative reactivity of metals enables us to make predictions about which metals react fastest or which metal will displace another. When metals react they form ionic compounds. The metal atoms lose one or more electrons to become positive ions. The more easily this happens the more reactive the metal. 

These reactions can be represented by word and symbol equations including state symbols. Ionic equations show only the ions that change in the reaction and show the gain or loss of electrons. They are useful for representing displacement reactions because they show what happens to the metal ions during the reaction. 

The way a metal is extracted depends on its reactivity. Some metals are extracted by reacting the metal compound in their ores with carbon. Carbon is a non-metal but can be placed in the reactivity series of the metals between aluminium and zinc. 

Metals below carbon in the reactivity series are extracted from their ores by displacement by carbon. The metal in the ore is reduced and carbon is oxidised. Highly reactive metals above carbon in the reactivity series are extracted by electrolysis. 

Scientists are developing methods of extracting the more unreactive metals from their ores using bacteria or plants. These methods can extract metals from waste material, reduce the need to extract ‘new’ ores, reduce energy costs, and reduce the amount of toxic metals in landfill. However, these methods do not produce large quantities of metals quickly (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. deduce an order of reactivity of metals based on experimental results including reactions with water, dilute acid and displacement reactions with other metals

2. explain how the reactivity of metals with water or dilute acids is related to the tendency of the metal to form its positive ion to include potassium, sodium, calcium, aluminium, magnesium, zinc, iron, lead, [hydrogen], copper, silver 

3. use the names and symbols of common elements and compounds and the principle of conservation of mass to write formulae and balanced chemical equations and ionic equations 

4. explain, using the position of carbon in the reactivity series, the principles of industrial processes used to extract metals, including the extraction of zinc 

5. explain why electrolysis is used to extract some metals from their ores 6. evaluate alternative biological methods of metal extraction (bacterial and phytoextraction)

What are electrolytes and what happens during electrolysis?

Teaching and learning narrative

Electrolysis is used to extract reactive metals from their ores. Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte by an electric current. Electrolytes include molten and dissolved ionic compounds. In both cases the ions are free to move. 

During electrolysis non-metal ions lose electrons to the anode to become neutral atoms. Metal (or hydrogen) ions gain electrons at the cathode to become neutral atoms. The addition or removal of electrons can be used to identify which species are reduced and which are oxidised. These changes can be summarised using half equations. Electrolysis is used to extract reactive metals from their molten compounds. 

During the electrolysis of aluminium, aluminium oxide is heated to a very high temperature. Positively charged aluminium ions gain electrons from the cathode to form atoms. Oxygen ions lose electrons at the anode and form oxygen molecules which react with carbon electrodes to form carbon dioxide. The process uses a large amount of energy for both the high temperature and the electricity involved in electrolysis. 

Some extraction methods, such as the recovery of metals from waste heaps, give a dilute aqueous solution of metals ions. 

When an electric current is passed through an aqueous solution the water is electrolysed as well as the ionic compound. Less reactive metals such as silver or copper form on the negative electrode. If the solution contains ions of more reactive metals, hydrogen gas forms from the hydrogen ions from the water. Similarly, oxygen usually forms at the positive electrode from hydroxide ions from the water. A concentrated solution of chloride ions forms chlorine at the positive electrode.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions at the electrodes 

2. predict the products of electrolysis of binary ionic compounds in the molten state 

3. recall that metals (or hydrogen) are formed at the cathode and non-metals are formed at the anode in electrolysis using inert electrodes 

4. use the names and symbols of common elements and compounds and the principle of conservation of mass to write half equations 

5. explain reduction and oxidation in terms of gain or loss of electrons, identifying which species are oxidised and which are reduced 

6. explain how electrolysis is used to extract some metals from their ores including the extraction of aluminium 

7. describe competing reactions in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of ionic compounds in terms of the different species present including the formation of oxygen, chlorine and the discharge of metals or hydrogen linked to their relative reactivity

8. describe the technique of electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a salt PAGC1

Why is crude oil important as a source of new materials?

Teaching and learning narrative

Crude oil is mixture of hydrocarbons. It is used as a source of fuels and as a feedstock for making chemicals (including polymers) for a very wide range of consumer products. Almost all of the consumer products we use involve the use of crude oil in their manufacture or transport. Crude oil is finite. If we continue to burn it at our present rate it will run out in the near future. 

Crude oil makes a significant positive difference to our lives, but our current use of crude oil is not sustainable. Decision about the use of crude oil must balance short-term benefits with the need to conserve this resource for future generations (IaS4). 

Crude oil is a mixture. It needs to be separated into groups of molecules of similar size called fractions. This is done by fractional distillation. Fractional distillation depends on the different boiling points of the hydrocarbons, which in turn is related to the size of the molecules and the intermolecular forces between them. 

The fractions are mixtures, mainly of alkanes, with a narrow range of boiling points. The first four alkanes show typical properties of a homologous series: each subsequent member increases in size by CH2, they have a general formula and show trends in their physical and chemical properties.

The molecular formula of an alkane shows the number of atoms present in each molecule. These formulae can be simplified to show the simplest ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms. This type of formula is an empirical formula.

Small molecules like alkanes and many of those met in chapter C1 contain non-metal atoms which are bonded to each other by covalent bonds. A covalent bond is a strong bond between two atoms that formed from a shared pair of electrons.

A covalent bond can be represented by a dot and cross diagram. Molecules can be shown as molecular or empirical formulae, displayed formulae (which show all of the bonds in the molecule) or in a 3 dimensional ‘balls and stick’ model. 

Simple molecules have strong covalent bonds joining the atoms within the molecule, but they only have weak intermolecular forces. No covalent bonds are broken when simple molecules boil. The molecules move apart when given enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces. This explains their low melting and boiling points. 

Cracking long chain alkanes makes smaller more useful molecules that are in great demand as fuels (for example petrol). Cracking also yields alkenes – hydrocarbons with carbon–carbon double bonds. Alkenes are much more reactive than alkanes and can react to make a very wide range of products including polymers. Without cracking, we would need to extract a lot more crude oil to meet demand for petrol and would waste some longer chain alkanes which are not as useful.

Assessable learning outcomes

 1. recall that crude oil is a main source of hydrocarbons and is a feedstock for the petrochemical industry 

 2. explain how modern life is crucially dependent upon hydrocarbons and recognise that crude oil is a finite resource  

3. describe and explain the separation of crude oil by fractional distillation PAGC2  

4. describe the fractions of crude oil as largely a mixture of compounds of formula CnH2n+2 which are members of the alkane homologous series  

5. use ideas about energy transfers and the relative strength of chemical bonds and intermolecular forces to explain the different temperatures at which changes of state occur  

6. deduce the empirical formula of a compound from the relative numbers of atoms present or from a model or diagram and vice versa  

7. use arithmetic computation and ratio when determining empirical formulae M1c  

8. describe the arrangement of chemical bonds in simple molecules 

9. explain covalent bonding in terms of the sharing of electrons

10. construct dot and cross diagrams for simple covalent substances 

11. represent three dimensional shapes in two dimensions and vice versa when looking at chemical structures for simple molecules M5b 

12. describe the limitations of dot and cross diagrams, ball and stick models and two and three dimensional representations when used to represent simple molecules 

13. translate information between diagrammatic and numerical forms M4a 

14. explain how the bulk properties of simple molecules are related to the covalent bonds they contain and their bond strengths in relation to intermolecular forces 

15. describe the production of materials that are more useful by cracking 

Material Choices

How is data used to choose a material for a particular use?

Teaching and learning narrative

Our society uses a large range of materials and products developed by chemists. Chemists assess materials by measuring their physical properties, and use data to compare different materials and to match materials to the specification of a useful product (IaS4). 

Composites have a very broad range of uses as they allow the properties of several materials to be combined. Composites may have materials combined on a bulk scale (for example, using steel to reinforce concrete) or have nanoparticles incorporated in a material or embedded in a matrix.

 

Assessable learning outcomes

1. compare quantitatively the physical properties of glass and clay ceramics, polymers, composites and metals including melting point, softening temperature (for polymers), electrical conductivity, strength (in tension or compression), stiffness, flexibility, brittleness, hardness, density, ease of reshaping

2. explain how the properties of materials are related to their uses and select appropriate materials given details of the usage required

How do bonding and structure affect properties of materials?

Teaching and learning narrative

Different materials can be made from the same atoms but have different properties if they have different types of bonding or structures. Chemists use ideas about bonding and structure when they predict the properties of a new material or when they are researching how an existing material can be adapted to enhance its properties. 

Carbon is an unusual element because it can form chains and rings with itself. This leads to a vast array of natural and synthetic compounds of carbon with a very wide range of properties and uses. ‘Families’ of carbon compounds are homologous series. 

Polymer molecules have the same strong covalent bonding as simple molecular compounds, but there are more intermolecular forces between the molecules due to their length. The strength of the intermolecular forces affects the properties of the solid. 

Giant covalent structures contain many atoms bonded together in a 3 dimensional arrangement by covalent bonds. The ability of carbon to bond with itself gives rise to a variety of materials which have different giant covalent structures of carbon atoms. These are allotropes, and include diamond and graphite. These materials have different properties which arise from their different structures.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain how the bulk properties of materials (including strength, melting point, electrical and thermal conductivity, brittleness, flexibility, hardness and ease of reshaping) are related to the different types of bonds they contain, their bond strengths in relation to intermolecular forces and the ways in which their bonds are arranged, recognising that the atoms themselves do not have these properties

2. recall that carbon can form four covalent bonds 

3. explain that the vast array of natural and synthetic organic compounds occurs due to the ability of carbon to form families of similar compounds, chains and rings 

4. describe the nature and arrangement of chemical bonds in polymers with reference to their properties including strength, flexibility or stiffness, hardness and melting point of the solid 

5. describe the nature and arrangement of chemical bonds in giant covalent structures 

6. explain the properties of diamond and graphite in terms of their structures and bonding including melting point, hardness and (for graphite) conductivity and lubricating action 

7. represent three dimensional shapes in two dimensions and vice versa when looking at chemical structures e.g. allotropes of carbon M5b 

8. describe and compare the nature and arrangement of chemical bonds in ionic compounds, simple molecules, giant covalent structures, polymers and metals 

Why are nanoparticles so useful?

Teaching and learning narrative

Nanoparticles have a similar scale to individual molecules. Their extremely small size means they can penetrate into biological tissues and can be incorporated into other materials to modify their properties. Nanoparticles have a very high surface area to volume ratio. This makes them excellent catalysts. 

Fullerenes form nanotubes and balls. The ball structure enables them to carry small molecules, for example carrying drugs into the body. The small size of fullerene nanotubes enables them to be used as molecular sieves and to be incorporated into other materials (for example to increase strength of sports equipment). Graphene sheets have specialised uses because they are only a single atom thick but are very strong with high electrical and thermal conductivity. 

Developing technologies based on fullerenes and graphene required leaps of imagination from creative thinkers (IaS3). 

There are concerns about the safety of some nanoparticles because not much is known about their effects on the human body. Judgements about a particular use for nanoparticles depend on balancing the perceived benefit and risk (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. compare ‘nano’ dimensions to typical dimensions of atoms and molecules 

2. describe the surface area to volume relationship for differentsized particles and describe how this affects properties 

3. describe how the properties of nanoparticulate materials are related to their uses including properties which arise from their size, surface area and arrangement of atoms in tubes or rings 

4. explain the properties fullerenes and graphene in terms of their structures 

5. explain the possible risks associated with some nanoparticulate materials, including:
a) possible effects on health due to their size and surface area b) reasons that there is more data about uses of nanoparticles than about possible health effects c) the relative risks and benefits of using nanoparticles for different purposes

6. estimate size and scale of atoms and nanoparticles including the ideas that: a) nanotechnology is the use and control of structures that are very small (1 to 100 nanometres in size) b) data expressed in nanometres is used to compare the sizes of nanoparticles, atoms and molecules M1d 

7. interpret, order and calculate with numbers written in standard form when dealing with nanoparticles M1b 

8. use ratios when considering relative sizes and surface area to volume comparisons M1c 9. calculate surface areas and volumes of cubes M5c

What happens to products at the end of their useful life?

Teaching and learning narrative

Iron is the most widely used metal in the world. The useful life of products made from iron is limited because iron corrodes. This involves an oxidation reaction with oxygen from the air. 

Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are used to consider the overall impact of our making, using and disposing of a product. LCAs involve considering the use of resources and the impact on the environment of all stages of making materials for a product from raw materials, making the finished product, the use of the product, transport and the method used for its disposal at the end of its useful life.

It is difficult to make secure judgments when writing LCAs because there is not always enough data and people do not always follow recommended disposal advice (IaS4). 

Some products can be recycled at the end of their useful life. In recycling, the products are broken down into the materials used to make them; these materials are then used to make something else. Reusing products uses less energy than recycling them. Reusing and recycling both affects the LCA. 

Recycling conserves resources such as crude oil and metal ores, but will not be sufficient to meet future demand for these resources unless habits change. 

The viability of a recycling process depends on a number of factors: the finite nature of some deposits of raw materials (such as metal ores and crude oil), availability of the material to be recycled, economic and practical considerations of collection and sorting, removal of impurities, energy use in transport and processing, scale of demand for new product, environmental impact of the process. Products made from recycled materials do not always have a lower environmental impact than those made from new resources (IaS4).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain reduction and oxidation in terms of loss or gain of oxygen, identifying which species are oxidised and which are reduced 

2. explain reduction and oxidation in terms of gain or loss of electrons, identifying which species are oxidised and which are reduced 

3. describe the basic principles in carrying out a life-cycle assessment of a material or product including: a) the use of water, energy and the environmental impact of each stage in a life cycle, including its manufacture, transport and disposal b) incineration, landfill and electricity generation schemes c) biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials 

4. interpret data from a life-cycle assessment of a material or product 

5. describe the process where PET drinks bottles are reused and recycled for different uses, and explain why this is viable 

6. evaluate factors that affect decisions on recycling with reference to products made from crude oil and metal ores

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Chemical analysis

How are chemicals separated and tested for purity?

Teaching and learning narrative

Many useful products contain mixtures. It is important that consumer products such as drugs or personal care products do not include impurities. Mixtures in many consumer products contain pure substances mixed together in definite proportions called formulations. 

Pure substances contain a single element or compound. Chemists test substances made in the laboratory and in manufacturing processes to check that they are pure. One way of assessing the purity of a substance is by testing its melting point; pure substances have sharp melting points and can be identified by matching melting point data to reference values. 

Chromatography is used to see if a substance is pure or to identify the substances in a mixture. Components of a mixture are identified by the relative distance travelled compared to the distance travelled by the solvent. Rf values can be calculated and used to identify unknown components by comparison to reference samples. Some substances are insoluble in water, so other solvents are used. Chromatography can be used on colourless substances but locating agents are needed to show the spots.

Preparation of chemicals often produces impure products or a mixture of products. Separation processes in both the laboratory and in industry enable useful products to be separated from by-products and waste products. The components of mixtures are separated using processes that exploit the different properties of the components, (for example state, boiling points, or solubility in different solvents). 

Separation processes are rarely completely successful and mixtures often need to go through several stages or through repeated processes to reach an acceptable purity

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain that many useful materials are formulations of mixtures 

2. explain what is meant by the purity of a substance, distinguishing between the scientific and everyday use of the term ‘pure’ 

3. use melting point data to distinguish pure from impure substances 

4. recall that chromatography involves a stationary and a mobile phase and that separation depends on the distribution between the phases 

5. interpret chromatograms, including calculating Rf values M3c 

6. suggest chromatographic methods for distinguishing pure from impure substances PAGC3 Including the use of: a) paper chromatography b) aqueous and non-aqueous solvents c) locating agents

7. describe, explain and exemplify the processes of filtration, crystallisation, simple distillation, and fractional distillation PAGC2, PAGC4 

8. suggest suitable purification techniques given information about the substances involved PAGC2, PAGC4

How are the amounts of substances in reactions calculated?

Teaching and learning narrative

During reactions, atoms are rearranged but the total mass does not change. Reactions in open systems often appear to have a change in mass because substances are gained or lost, usually to the air. 

Chemists use relative masses to measure the amounts of chemicals. Relative atomic masses for atoms of elements can be obtained from the Periodic Table. 

The relative formula mass of a compound can be calculated using its formula and the relative atomic masses of the atoms it contains. 

Counting atoms or formula units of compounds involves very large numbers, so chemists use a mole as a unit of counting. One mole contains 6.0 × 1023 atoms or formula units; this is the Avogadro constant. It is more convenient to count atoms as ‘numbers of moles’.

 In recognition of IUPAC’s review, we will accept both the classical (carbon-12 based) and revised (Avogadro constant based) definitions of the mole in examinations from June 2018 onwards (see https://iupac.org/new-definition-mole-arrived/) 

The number of moles of a substance can be worked out from its mass, this is useful to chemists because they can use the equations for reactions to work out the amounts of reactants to use in the correct proportions to make a particular product, or to work out which reactant is used up when a reaction stops.

The equation for a reaction can also be used to work out how much product can be made starting from a known amount of reactants. This is useful to determine the amounts of reacting chemicals to be used in industrial processes so that processes can run as efficiently as possible.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall and use the law of conservation of mass 

2. explain any observed changes in mass in non-enclosed systems during a chemical reaction and explain them using the particle model 

3. calculate relative formula masses of species separately and in a balanced chemical equation 

4. recall and use the definitions of the Avogadro constant (in standard form) and of the mole 

5. explain how the mass of a given substance is related to the amount of that substance in moles and vice versa and use the relationship: number of moles = mass of substance (g) relative formula mass (g) M2a, M3c 

6. deduce the stoichiometry of an equation from the masses of reactants and products and explain the effect of a limiting quantity of a reactant  

7. use a balanced equation to calculate masses of reactants or products M1a, M1c

8. use arithmetic computation, ratio, percentage and multistep calculations throughout quantitative chemistry M1a, M1c, M1d 

9. carry out calculations with numbers written in standard form when using the Avogadro constant M1b 

10. change the subject of a mathematical equation M3c

How are the amounts of chemicals in solution measured?

Teaching and learning narrative

Quantitative analysis is used by chemists to make measurements and calculations to show the amounts of each component in a sample. 

Concentrations sometimes use the units g/dm3 but more often are expressed using moles, with the units mol/dm3. Expressing concentration using moles is more useful because it links more easily to the reacting ratios in the equation. 

The concentration of acids and alkalis can be analysed using titrations. Alkalis neutralise acids. An indicator is used to identify the point when neutralisation is just reached. During the reaction, hydrogen ions from the acid react with hydroxide ions from the alkali to form water. The reaction can be represented using the equation H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O(l) 

As with all quantitative analysis techniques, titrations follow a standard procedure to ensure that the data is collected safely and is of high quality, including selecting samples, making rough and multiple repeat readings and using equipment of an appropriate precision (such as a burette and pipette). 

Data from titrations can be assessed in terms of its accuracy, precision and validity. An initial rough measurement is used as an estimate and titrations are repeated until a level of confidence can be placed in the data; the readings must be close together with a narrow range. The true value of a titration measurement can be estimated by discarding roughs and taking a mean of the results which are in close agreement. The results of a titration and the equation for the reaction are used to work out the concentration of an unknown acid or alkali.

Assessable learning outcomes
1. explain how the mass of a solute and the volume of the solution is related to the concentration of the solution and calculate concentration using the formulae: concentration (g/dm3) = mass of solute (g)/ volume (dm3) M3c

2. explain how the concentration of a solution in mol/ dm3 is related to the mass of the solute and the volume of the solution and calculate the molar concentration using the formula concentration (mol/dm3) = number of moles of solute / volume (dm3) M3c 

3. describe neutralisation as acid reacting with alkali to form a salt plus water including the common laboratory acids hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid and the common alkalis, the hydroxides of sodium, potassium and calcium 

4. recall that acids form hydrogen ions when they dissolve in water and solutions of alkalis contain hydroxide ions 

5. recognise that aqueous neutralisation reactions can be generalised to hydrogen ions reacting with hydroxide ions to form water 

6. describe and explain the procedure for a titration to give precise, accurate, valid and repeatable results 

7. evaluate the quality of data from titrations 

Making Useful Chemicals

What useful products can be made from acids?

Teaching and learning narrative

Many products that we use every day are based on the chemistry of acid reactions. Products made using acids include cleaning products, pharmaceutical products and food additives. In addition, acids are made on an industrial scale to be used to make bulk chemicals such as fertilisers. 

Acids react in neutralisation reactions with metals, hydroxides and carbonates. All neutralisation reactions produce salts, which have a wide range of uses and can be made on an industrial scale. The strength of an acid depends on the degree of ionisation and hence the concentration of H+ ions, which determines the reactivity of the acid. 

The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions in the solution. Strong acids ionise completely in solution, weak acids do not. Both strong and weak acids can be prepared at a range of different concentrations (i.e. different amounts of substance per unit volume). Weak acids and strong acids of the same concentration have different pH values. 

Weak acids are less reactive than strong acids of the same concentration (for example they react more slowly with metals and carbonates).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall that acids react with some metals and with carbonates and write equations predicting products from given reactants 

2. describe practical procedures to make salts to include appropriate use of filtration, evaporation, crystallisation and drying PAGC4 

3. use the formulae of common ions to deduce the formula of a compound 

4. recall that relative acidity and alkalinity are measured by pH including the use of universal indicator and pH meters

5. use and explain the terms dilute and concentrated (amount of substance) and weak and strong (degree of ionisation) in relation to acids including differences in reactivity with metals and carbonates 

6. use the idea that as hydrogen ion concentration increases by a factor of ten the pH value of a solution decreases by one 

7. describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of the effect of the concentration of hydrogen ions on the numerical value of pH (whole numbers only)

How do chemists control the rate of reactions?

Teaching and learning narrative

Controlling rate of reaction enables industrial chemists to optimise the rate at which a chemical product can be made safely. 

The rate of a reaction can be altered by altering conditions such as temperature, concentration, pressure and surface area. A model of particles colliding helps to explain why and how each of these factors affects rate; for example, increasing the temperature increases the rate of collisions and, more significantly, increases the energy available to the particles to overcome the activation energy and react. 

A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction but can be recovered, unchanged, at the end. Catalysts work by providing an alternative route for a reaction with a lower activation energy. Energy changes for uncatalysed and catalysed reactions have different reaction profiles.

The use of a catalyst can reduce the economic and environmental cost of an industrial process, leading to more sustainable ‘green’ chemical processes.

Rate of reaction can be determined by measuring the rate at which a product is made or the rate at which a reactant is used. Some reactions involve a colour change or form a solid in a solution; the rate of these reactions can be measured by timing the changes that happen in the solutions by eye or by using apparatus such as a colorimeter. Reactions that make gases can be followed by measuring the volume of gas or the change in mass over time. 

On graphs showing the change in a variable such as concentration over time, the gradient of a tangent to the curve is an indicator of rate of change at that time. The average rate of a reaction can be calculated from the time taken to make a fixed amount of product.

Enzymes are proteins that catalyse processes in living organisms. They work at their optimum within a narrow range of temperature and pH. Enzymes can be adapted and sometimes synthesised for use in industrial processes. Enzymes limit the conditions that can be used but this can be an advantage because if a process can be designed to use an enzyme at a lower temperature than a traditional process, this reduces energy demand.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the effect on rate of reaction of changes in temperature, concentration, pressure, and surface area 

2. explain the effects on rates of reaction of changes in temperature, concentration and pressure in terms of frequency and energy of collision between particles  

3. explain the effects on rates of reaction of changes in the size of the pieces of a reacting solid in terms of surface area to volume ratio  

4. describe the characteristics of catalysts and their effect on rates of reaction  

5. identify catalysts in reactions  

6. explain catalytic action in terms of activation energy 

7. suggest practical methods for determining the rate of a given reaction including: for reactions that produce gases: i) gas syringes or collection over water can be used to measure the volume of gas produced ii) mass change can be followed using a balance measurement of physical factors: iii) colour change iv) formation of a precipitate PAGC5

8. interpret rate of reaction graphs M4a, M4b  

9. use arithmetic computation and ratios when measuring rates of reaction M1a, M1c 

10. draw and interpret appropriate graphs from data to determine rate of reaction M2b, M4b, M4c 

11. determine gradients of graphs as a measure of rate of change to determine rate M4b, M4d, M4e

12. use proportionality when comparing factors affecting rate of reaction M1c

13. describe the use of enzymes as catalysts in biological systems and some industrial processes 

What factors affect the yield of chemical reactions?

Teaching and learning narrative

Industrial processes are managed to get the best yield as quickly and economically as possible. Chemists select the conditions that give the best economic outcome in terms of safety, maintaining the conditions and equipment, and energy use. 

The reactions in some processes are reversible. This can be problematic in industry because the reactants never completely react to make the products. This wastes reactants and means that the products have to be separated out from the reactants, which requires extra stages and costs. 

Data about yield and rate of chemical processes are used to choose the best conditions to make a product. On industrial scales, very high temperatures and pressures are expensive to maintain due to the cost of energy and because equipment may fail under extreme conditions. Catalysts can be used to increase the rate of reaction without affecting yield. 

Chemical engineers choose the conditions that will make the process as safe and efficient as possible, reduce the energy costs and reduce the waste produced at all stages of the process. 

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall that some reactions may be reversed by altering the reaction conditions including: a) reversible reactions are shown by the symbol ? b) reversible reactions (in closed systems) do not reach 100% yield

2. recall that dynamic equilibrium occurs when the rates of forward and reverse reactions are equal 

3. predict the effect of changing reaction conditions (concentration, temperature and pressure) on equilibrium position and suggest appropriate conditions to produce a particular product, including: a) catalysts increase rate but do not affect yield b) the disadvantages of using very high temperatures or pressures

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Radiation and Waves

What are the risks and benefits of using radiations?

Teaching and learning narrative

A model of radiation can be used to describe and predict the effects of some processes in which one object affects another some distance away. One object (a source) emits radiation (of some kind). This spreads out from the source and transfers energy to other object(s) some distance away. 

Light is one of a family of radiations, called the electromagnetic spectrum. All radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum travel at the same speed through space.

 When radiation strikes an object, some may be transmitted (pass through it), or be reflected, or be absorbed. When radiation is absorbed it ceases to exist as radiation; usually it heats the absorber. 

Some types of electromagnetic radiation do not just cause heating when absorbed; X-rays, gamma rays and high energy ultraviolet radiation have enough energy to remove an electron from an atom or molecule (ionisation) which can then take part in other chemical reactions.

Exposure to large amounts of ionising radiation can cause damage to living cells; smaller amounts can causes changes to cells which may make them grow in an uncontrolled way, causing cancer. 

Oxygen is acted on by radiation to produce ozone in the upper atmosphere. This ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, and protects living organisms, especially animals, from its harmful effects. Radio waves are produced when there is an oscillating current in an electrical circuit. 

Radio waves are detected when the waves cause an oscillating current in a conductor. Different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are used for different purposes due to differences in the ways they are reflected, absorbed, or transmitted by different materials. 

Developments in technology have made use of all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum; every development must be evaluated for the potential risks as well as the benefits (IaS4). Data and scientific explanations of mechanisms, rather than opinion, should be used to justify decisions about new technologies (IaS3).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the main groupings of the electromagnetic spectrum – radio, microwave, infrared, visible (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays, that these range from long to short wavelengths, from low to high frequencies, and from low to high energies 

2. recall that our eyes can only detect a very limited range of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum  

3. recall that all electromagnetic radiation is transmitted through space with the same very high (but finite) speed  

4. explain, with examples, that electromagnetic radiation transfers energy from source to absorber  

5. recall that different substances may absorb, transmit, or reflect electromagnetic radiation in ways that depend on wavelength 

6. recall that in each atom its electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus, that such arrangements may change with absorption or emission of electromagnetic radiation, and that atoms can become ions by loss of outer electrons 

7. recall that changes in molecules, atoms and nuclei can generate and absorb radiations over a wide frequency range, including: a) gamma rays are emitted from the nuclei of atoms b) X-rays, ultraviolet and visible light are generated when electrons in atoms lose energy c) high energy ultraviolet, gamma rays and X-rays have enough energy to cause ionisation when absorbed by some atoms d) ultraviolet is absorbed by oxygen to produce ozone, which also absorbs ultraviolet, protecting life on Earth e) infrared is emitted and absorbed by molecules

8. describe how ultra-violet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects, notably on human bodily tissues  

9. give examples of some practical uses of electromagnetic radiation in the radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray regions of the spectrum 

10. recall that radio waves can be produced by, or can themselves induce, oscillations in electrical circuits

What is climate change and what is the evidence for it?

Teaching and learning narrative

All objects emit electromagnetic radiation with a principal frequency that increases with temperature. The Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere which allows some of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun to pass through; this radiation warms the Earth’s surface when it is absorbed. The radiation emitted by the Earth, which has a lower principal frequency than that emitted by the Sun, is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by some gases in the atmosphere; this keeps the Earth warmer than it would otherwise be and is called the greenhouse effect. 

One of the main greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere is carbon dioxide, which is present in very small amounts; other greenhouse gases include methane, present in very small amounts, and water vapour. During the past two hundred years, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been steadily rising, largely the result of burning increased amounts of fossil fuels as an energy source and cutting down or burning forests to clear land. 

Computer climate models provide evidence that human activities are causing global warming. As more data is collected using a range of technologies, the model can be refined further and better predictions made (IaS3).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain that all bodies emit radiation, and that the intensity and wavelength distribution of any emission depends on their temperatures 

2. explain how the temperature of a body is related to the balance between incoming radiation, absorbed radiation and radiation emitted; illustrate this balance, using everyday examples including examples of factors which determine the temperature of the Earth 

How do waves behave?

Teaching and learning narrative

A wave is a regular disturbance that transfers energy in the direction that the wave travels, without transferring matter. 

For some waves (such as waves along a rope), the disturbance of the medium as the wave passes is at rightangles to its direction of motion. This is called a transverse wave. For other waves (such as a series of compression pulses on a slinky spring), the disturbance of the medium as the wave passes is parallel to its direction of motion. This is called a longitudinal wave. 

The speed of a wave depends on the medium it is travelling through. Its frequency is the number of waves each second that are made by the source. The wavelength of waves is the distance between the same points on two adjacent disturbances. 

The ways in which light and sound waves reflect and refract when they meet at an interface between two materials can be modelled with water waves. A wave model for light and sound can be used to describe and predict some behaviour of light and sound. 

Refraction of light and sound can be explained by a change in speed of waves when they pass into a different medium; a change in the speed of a wave causes a change in wavelength since the frequency of the waves cannot change, and that this may cause a change in direction

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe wave motion in terms of amplitude, wavelength, frequency and period 

2. describe evidence that for both ripples on water surfaces and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not the water or air itself that travels 

3. describe the difference between transverse and longitudinal waves 

4. describe how waves on a rope are an example of transverse waves whilst sound waves in air are longitudinal waves 

5. define wavelength and frequency 

6. recall and apply the relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength to waves, including waves on water, sound waves and across the electromagnetic spectrum: wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m) M1a, M1c, M3c, M3d 

7. a) describe how the speed of ripples on water surfaces and the speed of sound waves in air, may be measured b) describe how to use a ripple tank to measure the speed/frequency and wavelength of a wave PAGP4

8. a) describe the effects of reflection and refraction of waves at material interfaces b) describe how to measure the refraction of light through a prism c) describe how to investigate the reflection of light off a plane mirror PAGP4  

9. recall that waves travel in different substances at different speeds and that these speeds may vary with wavelength 

10. explain how refraction is related to differences in the speed of the waves in different substances 

11. recall that light is an electromagnetic wave 12. recall that electromagnetic waves are transverse

Sustainable Energy

How much energy do we use?

Teaching and learning narrative

Energy is considered as being stored in a limited number of ways: chemical, nuclear, kinetic, gravitational, elastic, thermal, electrostatic and electromagnetic and can be transferred from one to another by processes called working and heating. 

Electricity is a convenient way to transfer energy from source to the consumer because it is easily transmitted over distances and can be used to do work in many ways, including heating and driving motors which make things move or to lift weights. 

When energy is used to do work some energy is usually wasted in doing things other than the intended outcome, it is dissipated into the surroundings, ultimately into inaccessible thermal stores. 

The power of an appliance or device is a measure of the amount of energy it transfers each second, i.e. the rate at which it transfers energy. 

Sankey diagrams are used to show all the energy transfers in a system, including energy dissipated to the surroundings; the data can be used to calculate the efficiency of energy transfers.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe how energy in chemical stores in batteries, or in fuels at the power station, is transferred by an electric current, doing work on domestic devices, such as motors or heaters 

2. explain, with reference to examples, the relationship between the power ratings for domestic electrical appliances, the time for which they are in use and the changes in stored energy when they are in use 

3. recall and apply the following equation in the context of energy transfers by electrical appliances: energy transferred (J, kWh) = power (W, kW) × time (s, h) M3c, M3d 

4. describe, with examples, where there are energy transfers in a system, that there is no net change to the total energy of a closed system qualitative only 

5. describe, with examples system changes, where energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less useful ways 

6. explain ways of reducing unwanted energy transfer e.g. through lubrication, thermal insulation 

7. describe the effects, on the rate of cooling of a building, of thickness and thermal conductivity of its walls qualitative only 

8. recall and apply the equation: efficiency = useful energy transferred ÷ total energy transferred to calculate energy efficiency for any energy transfer, and describe ways to increase efficiency M1c 

9. interpret and construct Sankey diagrams to show understanding that energy is conserved M4a

How can electricity be generated?

Teaching and learning narrative

The main energy resources that are available to humans are fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal), nuclear fuels, biofuels, wind, water, and radiation from the Sun.

In most power stations generators produce a voltage across a wire by spinning a magnet near the wire. Often an energy source is used to heat water; the steam produced drives a turbine which is coupled to an electrical generator. Other energy sources drive the generator directly. 

The mains supply to our homes is an alternating voltage, at 50Hz, 230 volts, but electricity is distributed through the National Grid at much higher voltages to reduce energy losses. Transformers are used to increase the voltage for transmission and then decrease the voltage for domestic use.

Most mains appliances are connected by a three core cable, containing live, neutral and earth wires. The demand for energy is continually increasing and this raises issues about the availability and sustainability of energy sources and the environmental effects of using these sources. 

The introduction and development of new energy sources may provide new opportunities but also introduces technological and environmental challenges. The decisions about the energy sources that are used may be different for different people in different contexts (IaS4). 

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the main energy resources available for use on Earth (including fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, biofuel, wind, hydroelectricity, the tides and the Sun) 

2. explain the differences between renewable and non-renewable energy resources 

3. compare the ways in which the main energy resources are used to generate electricity M2c 

4. recall that the domestic supply in the UK is a.c., at 50Hz and about 230 volts and explain the difference between direct and alternating voltage 

5. recall that, in the National Grid, transformers are used to transfer electrical power at high voltages from power stations, to the network and then used again to transfer power at lower voltages in each locality for domestic use 

6. recall the differences in function between the live, neutral and earth mains wires, and the potential differences between these wires; hence explain that a live wire may be dangerous even when a switch in a mains circuit is open, and explain the dangers of providing any connection between the live wire and any earthed object 

7. explain patterns and trends in the use of energy resources in domestic contexts, workplace contexts, and national contexts M2c

Electric Circuits

What determines the current in an electric circuit?

Teaching and learning narrative

An electric current is the rate of flow of charge; in an electric circuit the metal conductors (the components and wires) contain many charges that are free to move. When a circuit is made, the battery causes these free charges to move, and these charges are not used up but flow in a continuous loop. 

In a given circuit, the larger the potential difference across the power supply the bigger the current. Components (for example, resistors, lamps, motors) resist the flow of charge through them; the resistance of connecting wires is usually so small that it can be ignored. The larger the resistance in a given circuit, the smaller the current will be. 

Representational models of electric circuits use physical analogies to help think about how an electric circuit works, and to predict what happens when a variable is changed (IaS3).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall that current is a rate of flow of charge, that for a charge to flow, a source of potential difference and a closed circuit are needed and that a current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop

2. recall and use the relationship between quantity of charge, current and time: charge (C) = current (A) × time (s) M1c, M3c, M3d 

3. recall that current (I) depends on both resistance (R) and potential difference (V), and recall the units in which these quantities are measured 

4. a) recall and apply the relationship between I, R, and V, to calculate the currents, potential differences and resistances in d.c. series circuits potential difference (V) = current (A) × resistance (Ω) M1c, M3c, M3d b) describe an experiment to investigate the resistance of a wire and be able to draw the circuit diagram of the circuit used PAGP6 

5. recall that for some components the value of R remains constant (fixed resistors) but that in others it can change as the current changes (e.g. heating elements, lamp filaments)

6. a) use graphs to explore whether circuit elements are linear or non-linear and relate the curves produced to their function and properties M4c, M4d b) describe experiments to investigate the I-V characteristics of circuit elements. To include: lamps, diodes, LDRs and thermistors. Be able to draw circuit diagrams for the circuits used PAGP6 

7. represent circuits with the conventions of positive and negative terminals, and the symbols that represent common circuit elements, filament lamps, diodes, LDRs, thermistors, switches and fixed and variable resistors

 

How do series and parallel circuits work?

Teaching and learning narrative

When electric charge flows through a component (or device), work is done by the power supply and energy is transferred from it to the component and/or its surroundings. Potential difference measures the work done per unit charge. 

In a series circuit the charge passes through all the components, so the current through each component is the same and the work done on each unit of charge by the battery must equal the total work done by the unit of charge on the components. The potential difference (p.d.) is largest across the component with the greatest resistance and a change in the resistance of one component will result in a change in the potential differences across all the components. 

In a parallel circuit each charge passes through only one branch of the circuit, so the current through each branch is the same as if it were the only branch present and the work done by each unit of charge is the same for each branch and equal to the work done by the battery on each charge. The current is largest through the component with the smallest resistance, because the same battery p.d. causes a larger current to flow through a smaller resistance than through a bigger one. 

When two or more resistors are placed in series the effective resistance of the combination (equivalent resistance) is equal to the sum of their resistances, because the battery has to move charges through all of them.

Two (or more) resistors in parallel provide more paths for charges to move along than either resistor on its own, so the effective resistance is less.

Some components are designed to change resistance in response to changes in the environment e.g. the resistance of an LDR varies with light intensity, the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature; these properties are used in sensing systems to monitor changes in the environment.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. relate the potential difference between two points in the circuit to the work done on, or by, a given amount of charge as it moves between these points: potential difference (V) = work done (energy transferred) (J) ÷ charge (C) M1c, M3c, M3d

2. a) describe the difference between series and parallel circuits: to include ideas about how the current through each component and the potential difference across each component is affected by a change in resistance of a component b) describe how to practically investigate the brightness of bulbs in series and parallel circuits. Be able to draw circuit diagrams for the circuits used PAGP6 

3. explain, why, if two resistors are in series the net resistance is increased, whereas with two in parallel the net resistance is decreased qualitative only 

4. solve problems for circuits which include resistors in series, using the concept of equivalent resistance M1c, M3c, M3d

5. explain the design and use of d.c. series circuits for measurement and testing purposes including exploring the effect of: a) changing current in filament lamps, diodes, thermistors and LDRs b) changing light intensity on an LDR c) changing temperature of a thermistor (NTC only)

What determines the rate of energy transfer in a circuit?

Teaching and learning narrative

The energy transferred when electric charge flows through a component (or device), depends on the amount of charge that passes and the potential difference across the component. The power rating (in watts, W) of an electrical device is a measure of the rate at which an electrical power supply transfers energy to the device and/or its surroundings. 

The rate of energy transfer depends on both the potential difference and the current. The greater the potential difference, the faster the charges move through the circuit, and the more energy each charge transfers. The National Grid uses transformers to step down the current for power transmission. 

The power output from a transformer cannot be greater than the power input, therefore if the current increases, the potential difference must decrease. Transmitting power with a lower current through the cables results in less power being dissipated during transmission.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the energy transfers that take place when a system is changed by work done when a current flows through a component 

2. explain, with reference to examples, how the power transfer in any circuit device is related to the energy transferred from the power supply to the device and its surroundings over a given time: power (W) = energy (J) ÷ time (s) M1c, M3c, M3d 

3. recall and use the relationship between the potential difference across the component and the total charge to calculate the energy transferred in an electric circuit when a current flows through a component: energy transferred (work done) (J) = charge (C) × potential difference (V) M1c, M3c, M3d 

4. recall and apply the relationships between power transferred in any circuit device, the potential difference across it, the current through it, and its resistance: a) power (W) = potential difference (V) × current (A) b) power (W) = (current (A))2 × resistance (Ω) M1c, M3c, M3d

5. use the idea of conservation of energy to show that when a transformer steps up the voltage, the output current must decrease and vice versa select and use the equation: potential difference across primary coil × current in primary coil = potential difference across secondary coil × current in secondary coil M1c, M3b, M3c, M3d 

6. explain how transmitting power at higher voltages is more efficient way to transfer energy 

What are magnetic fields?

Teaching and learning narrative

Around any magnet there is a region, called the magnetic field, in which another magnet experiences a force. The magnetic effect is strongest at the poles. The field gets gradually weaker with distance from the magnet. 

The direction and strength of a magnetic field can be represented by field lines. These show the direction of the force that would be experienced by the N pole of a small magnet, placed in the field. 

The magnetic field around the Earth, with poles near the geographic north and south, provides evidence that the core of the Earth is magnetic. The N-pole of a magnetic compass will point towards the magnetic north pole. 

Magnetic materials (such as iron and nickel) can be induced to become magnets by placing them in a magnetic field. When the field is removed permanent magnets retain their magnetisation whilst other materials lose their magnetisation. When there is an electric current in a wire, there is a magnetic field around the wire; the field lines form concentric circles around the wire. Winding the wire into a coil (solenoid) makes the magnetic field stronger, as the fields of each turn add together. Winding the coil around an iron core makes a stronger magnetic field and an electromagnet that can be switched on and off. 

The 19th-century discovery of this electromagnetic effect led quickly to the invention of a number of magnetic devices, including electromagnetic relays, which formed the basis of the telegraph system, leading to a communications revolution (IaS4.1).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the attraction and repulsion between unlike and like poles for permanent magnets 

2. describe the characteristics of the magnetic field of a magnet, showing how strength and direction change from one point to another 

3. explain how the behaviour of a magnetic compass is related to evidence that the core of the Earth must be magnetic 

4. describe the difference between permanent and induced magnets 

5. describe how to show that a current can create a magnetic effect 

6. describe the pattern and directions of the magnetic field around a conducting wire 

7. recall that the strength of the field depends on the current and the distance from the conductor 

8. explain how the magnetic effect of a solenoid can be increased 

How do electric motors work?

Teaching and learning narrative

The magnetic fields of a current-carrying wire and a nearby permanent magnet will interact and the wire and magnet exert a force on each other. This is called the ‘motor effect’. 

If the current-carrying wire is placed at right angles to the magnetic field lines, the force will be at right angles to both the current direction and the lines of force of the field. 

The direction of the force can be inferred using Fleming’s left-hand rule. The size of the force is proportional to the length of wire in the field, the current and the strength of the field. 

The motor effect can result in a turning force on a rectangular current-carrying coil placed in a uniform magnetic field; this is the principle behind all electric motors. 

The invention and development of practical electric motors have made an impact on almost every aspect of daily life (IaS4.1).

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the interaction forces between a magnet and a current-carrying conductor to include ideas about magnetic fields

2. show that Fleming’s left-hand rule represents the relative orientations of the force, the conductor and the magnetic field 

3. select and apply the equation that links the force (F) on a conductor to the strength of the field (B), the size of the current (I) and the length of conductor (I) to calculate the forces involved force (N) = magnetic flux density (T) × current (A) × length of conductor (m) M1b, M1c, M3c, M3d 

4. explain how the force on a conductor in a magnetic field is used to cause rotation in the rectangular coil of a simple electric motor i Detailed knowledge of the construction of motors not required

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Explaining Motion

What are forces?

Teaching and learning narrative

Force arises from an interaction between two objects, and when two objects interact, both always experience a force and these two forces form an interaction pair. The two forces in an interaction pair are the same kind of force, equal in size and opposite in direction, and act on different objects (Newton’s Third Law). 

Friction is the interaction between two surfaces that slide (or tend to slide) relative to each other: each surface experiences a force in the direction that prevents (or tends to prevent) relative movement. 

There is an interaction between an object and the surface it is resting on: the object pushes down on the surface, the surface pushes up on the object with an equal force, and this is called the normal contact force. 

In everyday situations, a downward force acts on every object, due to the gravitational attraction of the Earth. This is called its weight. It can be measured (in N) using a spring (or top-pan) balance. The weight of an object is proportional to its mass. Near the Earth’s surface, the weight of a 1 kg object is roughly 10 N. The Earth’s gravitational field strength is therefore 10 N/kg. 

Newton’s insight that linked the force that causes objects to fall to Earth with the force that keeps the Moon in orbit around the Earth led to the first universal law of nature. 

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall and apply Newton’s Third Law 

2. recall examples of ways in which objects interact: by gravity, electrostatics, magnetism and by contact (including normal contact force and friction) 

3. describe how examples of gravitational, electrostatic, magnetic and contact forces involve interactions between pairs of objects which produce a force on each object 

4. represent interaction forces as vectors 

5. define weight 

6. describe how weight is measured 

7. recall and apply the relationship between the weight of an object, its mass and the gravitational field strength: weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg) M1c, M3c

How can we describe motion?

Teaching and learning narrative

The motion of a moving object can be described using the speed the object is moving, the direction it is travelling and whether the speed is changing. 

The distance an object has travelled at a given moment is measured along the path it has taken. 

The displacement of an object at a given moment is its net distance from its starting point together with an indication of direction. 

The velocity of an object at a given moment is its speed at that moment, together with an indication of its direction. 

Distance and speed are scalar quantities; they give no indication of direction of motion. 

Displacement and velocity are vector quantities, and include information about the direction. In everyday situations, acceleration is used to mean the change in speed of an object in a given time interval. 

Distance–time graphs and speed–time graphs can be used to describe motion. The average speed can be calculated from the slope of a distance-time graph. 

The average acceleration of an object moving in a straight line can be calculated from a speed-time graph. 

The distance travelled can be calculated from the area under the line on a speed-time graph.

The mathematical relationships between acceleration, speed, distance, and time are a simple example of a computational model. The model can be used to predict the speed and position of an object moving at constant speed or with constant acceleration.

Assessable learning outcomes

 1. recall and apply the relationship: average speed (m/s) = distance (m) ÷ time (s) M1a, M1c, M3b, M3c, M3d

 2. recall typical speeds encountered in everyday experience for wind, and sound, and for walking, running, cycling and other transportation systems  

3. a) make measurements of distances and times, and calculate speeds b) describe how to use appropriate apparatus and techniques to investigate the speed of a trolley down a ramp M2b, M2f PAGP3  

4. make calculations using ratios and proportional reasoning to convert units, to include between m/s and km/h M1c, M3c  

5. explain the vector–scalar distinction as it applies to displacement and distance, velocity and speed 

6. a) recall and apply the relationship: acceleration (m/s2) = change in speed (m/s) ÷ time taken (s) M1c, M3b, M3c, M3d b) explain how to use appropriate apparatus and techniques to investigate acceleration PAGP3

 7. select and apply the relationship: (final speed (m/s))2 – (initial speed(m/s))2 = 2 × acceleration (m/s2) × distance (m) M1a, M1c, M3b, M3c, M3d  

8. draw and use graphs of distances and speeds against time to determine the speeds and accelerations involved  

9. interpret distance–time and velocity–time graphs, including relating the lines and slopes in such graphs to the motion represented M4a, M4b, M4c, M4d 

10. Interpret enclosed areas in velocity–time graphs M4a, M4b, M4c, M4d, M4f 11. recall the value of acceleration in free fall and calculate the magnitudes of everyday accelerations using suitable estimates of speeds and times M2h

What is the connection between forces and motion?

Teaching and learning narrative

When forces act on an object the resultant force is the sum of all the individual forces acting on it, taking their directions into account. If a resultant force acts on an object, it causes a change in momentum in the direction of the force. 

The size of the change in momentum of an object is proportional to the size of the resultant force acting on the object and to the time for which it acts (Newton’s Second Law). For an object moving in a straight line: 

• if the resultant force is zero, the object will move at constant speed in a straight line (Newton’s First Law) 

• if the resultant force is in the direction of the motion, the object will speed up (accelerate) 

• if the resultant force is in the opposite direction to the motion, the object will slow down.

In situations involving a change in momentum (such as a collision), the longer the duration of the impact, the smaller the average force for a given change in momentum.

In situations where the resultant force on a moving object is not in the line of motion, the force will cause a change in direction. 

If the force is perpendicular to the direction of motion the object will move in a circle at a constant speed – the speed doesn’t change but the velocity does. For example, a planet in orbit around the Sun – gravity acts along the radius of the orbit, at right angles to the planet’s path. 

The mass of an object can be thought of as the amount of matter in an object – the sum of all the atoms that make it up. Mass is measured in kilograms. The mass of an object is also a measure of its resistance to any change in its motion (its inertia); using this definition the inertial mass is the ratio of the force applied to the resulting acceleration. 

Newton wrote about how the length of time a force acted on an object would change the object’s ‘amount of motion’, and the way he used the term makes it clear that he is describing what we now call momentum, this has led to Newton’s Second Law being expressed in two ways: in terms of change in momentum and in terms of acceleration. 

Newton’s explanation of motion is one of the great intellectual leaps of humanity. It is a good example of the need for creativity and imagination to develop a scientific explanation of something that had been observed and discussed for many years (IaS3).

Ideas about force and momentum can be used to explain road safety measures, such as stopping distances, car seatbelts, crumple zones, air bags, and cycle and motorcycle helmets. 

Improvements in technology based on Newton’s laws of motion (together with the development of new materials) have made all forms of travel much safer.

Assessable learning outcomes

 1. describe examples of the forces acting on an isolated solid object or system

 2. describe, using free body diagrams, examples where several forces lead to a resultant force on an object and the special case of balanced forces (equilibrium) when the resultant force is zero qualitative only 

3. use scale drawings of vector diagrams to illustrate the resolution of two or more forces, in situations when there is a net force, or equilibrium i Limited to parallel and perpendicular vectors only M4a, M5a, M5b 

4. recall and apply the equation for momentum and describe examples of the conservation of momentum in collisions: momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) × velocity (m/s) M1c, M3c, M3d 

5. select and apply Newton’s Second Law in calculations relating force, change in momentum and time: change in momentum (kg m/s) = resultant force (N) × time for which it acts (s) M1c, M3c, M3d

6. apply Newton’s First Law to explain the motion of objects moving with uniform velocity and also the motion of objects where the speed and/or direction changes

7. explain with examples that motion in a circular orbit involves constant speed but changing velocity qualitative only 

8. explain that inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object and that it is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration 

9. recall and apply Newton’s Second Law, relating force, mass and acceleration: force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s2) M1c, M3c, M3d

10. use and apply equations relating force, mass, velocity, acceleration and momentum to explain relationships between the quantities M3b, M3c, M3d 

11. explain methods of measuring human reaction times and recall typical results 

12. explain the factors which affect the distance required for road transport vehicles to come to rest in emergencies and the implications for safety M2c 

13. explain the dangers caused by large decelerations 

How can we describe motion in terms of energy transfers?

Teaching and learning narrative

Energy is always conserved in any event or process. Energy calculations can be used to find out if something is possible and what will happen, but not explain why it happens. 

The store of energy of a moving object is called its kinetic energy. 

As an object is raised, its store of gravitational potential energy increases, and as it falls, its gravitational potential energy decreases. 

When a force moves an object, it does work on the object, energy is transferred to the object; when work is done by an object, energy is transferred from the object to something else, for example: 

• when an object is lifted to a higher position above the ground, work is done by the lifting force; this increases the store of gravitational potential energy 

• when a force acting on an object makes its velocity increase, the force does work on the object and this results in an increase in its store of kinetic energy. 

If friction and air resistance can be ignored, an object’s store of kinetic energy changes by an amount equal to the work done on it by an applied force; in practice air resistance or friction will cause the gain in kinetic energy to be less than the work done on it by an applied force in the direction of motion, because some energy is dissipated through heating.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the energy transfers involved when a system is changed by work done by forces including: a) to raise an object above ground level b) to move an object along the line of action of the force

2. recall and apply the relationship to calculate the work done (energy transferred) by a force: work done (Nm or J) = force (N) × distance (m) (along the line of action of the force)
M1a, M3c, M3d 

3. recall the equation and calculate the amount of energy associated with a moving object:
kinetic energy (J) = 0.5 × mass (kg) × (speed (m/s))2
M1a, M3c, M3d 

4. recall the equation and calculate the amount of energy associated with an object raised above ground level:
gravitational potential energy (J) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg) × height (m)
M1a, M3c, M3d 

5. make calculations of the energy transfers associated with changes in a system, recalling relevant equations for mechanical processes
M1a, M1c, M3c

6. calculate relevant values of stored energy and energy transfers; convert between newton-metres and joules M1c, M3c 

7. describe all the changes involved in the way energy is stored when a system changes, for common situations: including an object projected upwards or up a slope, a moving object hitting an obstacle, an object being accelerated by a constant force, a vehicle slowing down 

8. explain, with reference to examples, the definition of power as the rate at which energy is transferred (work done) in a system 9. recall and apply the relationship: power (W) = energy transferred (J) ÷ time (s) M1a, M3c, M3d

Radioactive Materials

What is radioactivity?

Teaching and learning narrative

An atom has a nucleus, made of protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. The modern model of the atom developed over time as scientists rejected earlier models and proposed new ones to fit the currently available evidence. 

Each stage relied on scientists using reasoning to propose models which fitted the evidence available at the time. Models were rejected, modified and extended as new evidence became available (IaS3). 

After the discovery of the electron in the 19th century by Thomson, scientists imagined that atoms were small particles of positive matter with the negative electrons spread through, like currants in a cake. 

This was the model used until 1910 when the results of the Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden alpha particle scattering experiment provided evidence that a gold atom contains a small, massive, positive region (the nucleus). 

Atoms are small – about 10–10 m across, and the nucleus is at the centre, about a hundred-thousandth of the diameter of the atom. 

Each atom has a nucleus at its centre and that nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. For an element, the number of the protons is always the same but the number of neutrons may differ. Forms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called the isotopes of the element.

Interpreting the unexpected results of the Rutherford-GeigerMarsden experiment required imagination to consider a new model of the atom. Some substances emit ionising radiation all the time and are called radioactive. 

The ionising radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, and neutron) is emitted from the unstable nucleus of the radioactive atoms, which as a result become more stable. 

Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, and beta particles are identical to electrons. Gamma radiation is very high frequency electromagnetic radiation. 

Radioactive decay is a random process. For each radioactive isotope there is a different constant chance that any nucleus will decay. Over time the activity of radioactive sources decreases, as the number of undecayed nuclei decreases. 

The time taken for the activity to fall to half is called the half-life of the isotope and can be used to calculate the time it takes for a radioactive material to become relatively safe.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. describe the atom as a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons, with the nuclear radius much smaller than that of the atom and with almost all of the mass in the nucleus 

 2. describe how and why the atomic model has changed over time, to include the main ideas of Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr  

3. recall the typical size (order of magnitude) of atoms and small molecules  

4. recall that atomic nuclei are composed of both protons and neutrons, and that the nucleus of each element has a characteristic positive charge  

5. recall that nuclei of the same element can differ in nuclear mass by having different numbers of neutrons, these are called isotopes  

6. use the conventional representation to show the differences between isotopes, including their identity, charge and mass  

7. recall that some nuclei are unstable and may emit alpha particles, beta particles, or neutrons, and electromagnetic radiation as gamma rays

 8. relate emissions of alpha particles, beta particles, or neutrons, and gamma rays to possible changes in the mass or the charge of the nucleus, or both  

9. use names and symbols of common nuclei and particles to write balanced equations that represent the emission of alpha, beta, gamma, and neutron radiations during radioactive decay M1b, M1c, M3c 

10. explain the concept of half-life and how this is related to the random nature of radioactive decay 

11. calculate the net decline, expressed as a ratio, in a radioactive emission after a given (integral) number of half-lives M1c, M3d 

12. interpret activity-time graphs to find the half-life of radioactive materials M1c, M2g, M4a, M4c

How can radioactive materials be used safely?

Teaching and learning narrative

onising radiation can damage living cells and these may be killed or may become cancerous, so radioactive materials must be handled with care. In particular, a radioactive material taken into the body (contamination) poses a higher risk than the same material outside as the material will continue to emit ionising radiation until it leaves the body. 

Whilst ionising radiation can cause cancer, it can also be used for imaging inside the body and to kill cancerous cells. 

Doctors and patients need to consider the risks and benefits when using ionising radiation to treat diseases

Assessable learning outcomes

1. recall the differences in the penetration properties of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays

2. recall the differences between contamination and irradiation effects and compare the hazards associated with each of these 

3. describe the different uses of nuclear radiations for exploration of internal organs, and for control or destruction of unwanted tissue 

4. explain how ionising radiation can have hazardous effects, notably on human bodily tissues 5. explain why the hazards associated with radioactive material differ according to the radiation emitted and the half-life involved 

Matter – Models and Explanations

How does energy transform matter?

Teaching and learning narrative

It took the insight of a number of eighteenth and nineteenth century scientists to appreciate that heat and work were two aspects of the same quantity, which we call energy. Careful experiments devised by Joule showed that equal amounts of mechanical work would always produce the same temperature rise. 

Energy can be supplied to raise the temperature of a substance by heating using a fuel, or an electric heater, or by doing work on the material. 

Mass – the amount of matter in an object – depends on its volume and the density of the material of which it consists. 

The temperature rise of an object when it is heated depends on its mass and the amount of energy supplied. Different substances store different amounts of energy per unit mass for the same temperature rise – this is called the specific heat capacity of the material. 

When a substance in the solid state is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches the melting point of the substance, but energy must continue to be supplied for the solid to melt. Its temperature does not change while it melts, and the change in density on melting is very small. 

Similarly as a substance in the liquid state is heated its temperature rises until it reaches boiling point; its temperature does not change, although energy continues to be supplied while it boils. The change in density on boiling is very great; a small volume of liquid produces a large volume of vapour.

Different substances require different amounts of energy per kilogram to change the state of the substance – this is called the specific latent heat of the substance.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. a) define density b) describe how to determine the densities of solid and liquid objects using measurements of length, mass and volume M1c, M5c PAGP1

2. recall and apply the relationship between density, mass and volume to changes where mass is conserved: density (kg/m3) = mass (kg) ÷ volume (m3) M1a, M1b, M1c, M3c 

3. describe the energy transfers involved when a system is changed by heating (in terms of temperature change and specific heat capacity) 

4. define the term specific heat capacity and distinguish between it and the term specific latent heat 

5. a) select and apply the relationship between change in internal energy of a material and its mass, specific heat capacity and temperature: change in internal energy (J) = mass (kg) × specific heat capacity (J / kg / °C) × change in temperature (°C) M1a, M1c, M3d b) explain how to safely use apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of materials PAGP5

6. select and apply the relationship between energy needed to cause a change in state, specific latent heat and mass: energy to cause a change of state (J) = mass (kg) × specific latent heat (J/kg) M1a, M1c, M3c, M3d

7. describe all the changes involved in the way energy is stored when a system changes, and the temperature rises, for example: a moving object hitting an obstacle, an object slowing down, water brought to a boil in an electric kettle 

8. make calculations of the energy transfers associated with changes in a system when the temperature changes, recalling or selecting the relevant equations for mechanical, electrical, and thermal processes M1a, M1c, M2a, M3c, M3d

How does the particle model explain the effects of heating?

Teaching and learning narrative

The particle model of matter describes the arrangements and behaviours of particles (atoms and molecules); it can be used to predict and explain the differences in properties between solids, liquids and gases. In this model: 

  • all matter is made of very tiny particles 
  • there is no other matter except these particles (in particular, no matter between them) 
  • particles of any given substance are all the same
  • particles of different substances have different masses 
  • there are attractive forces between particles. These differ in strength from one substance to another 
  • in the solid state, the particles are close together and unable to move away from their neighbours 
  • in the liquid state, the particles are also close together, but can slide past each other 
  • in the gas state, the particles are further apart, and can move freely. 

The particle model is an example of how scientists use models as tools for explaining observed phenomena. 

The particle model can be used to describe and predict physical changes when matter is heated.

  • The particles are always moving: in the solid state, they are vibrating; in the liquid state, they are vibrating and jostling around; in the gas state, they are moving freely in random directions. 
  • A substance in the gas state exerts pressure on its container because the momentum of the particles changes when they collide with walls of the container. 
  • The hotter something is, the higher its temperature is and the faster its particles are vibrating or moving. 

Careful experimentation and mathematical analysis showed that the temperature of a substance was linked to the kinetic energy of its atoms or molecules.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain the differences in density between the different states of matter in terms of the arrangements of the atoms or molecules 

2. use the particle model of matter to describe how mass is conserved, when substances melt, freeze, evaporate, condense or sublimate, but that these changes differ from chemical changes and the material recovers its original properties if the change is reversed 

3. use the particle model to describe how heating a system will change the energy stored within the system and raise its temperature or produce changes of state 

4. explain how the motion of the molecules in a gas is related both to its temperature and its pressure: hence explain the relation between the temperature of a gas and its pressure at constant volume qualitative only

How does the particle model relate to materials under stress?

Teaching and learning narrative

When more than one force is applied to a solid material it may be compressed, stretched or twisted. When the forces are removed it may return to its original shape or become permanently deformed. 

These effects can be explained using ideas about particles in the solid state. A substance in the solid state is a fixed shape due to the forces between the particles. 

Compressing or stretching the material changes the separation of the particles, and the forces between the particles. 

Elastic materials spring back to their original shape. If the forces are too large the material becomes plastic and is permanently distorted. 

For some materials, the extension is proportional to the applied force, but in other systems, such as rubber bands the relationship is not linear, even though they are elastic. 

When work is done by a force to compress or stretch a spring or other simple system, energy is stored, this energy can be recovered when the force is removed.

Assessable learning outcomes

1. explain, with examples, that to stretch, bend or compress an object, more than one force has to be applied 

2. describe and use the particle model to explain the difference between elastic and plastic deformation caused by stretching forces 

3. a) describe the relationship between force and extension for a spring and other simple systems b) describe how to measure and observe the effect of forces on the extension of a spring M2b, M2f PAGP2 

4. describe the difference between the force-extension relationship for linear systems and for non-linear systems 

5. recall and apply the relationship between force, extension and spring constant for systems where the force-extension relationship is linear force exerted by a spring (N) = extension (m) × spring constant (N/m) M1c, M3c 

6. a) calculate the work done in stretching a spring or other simple system, by calculating the appropriate area on the force-extension graph M4f b) describe how to safely use apparatus to determine the work done in stretching a spring PAGP2

7. select and apply the relationship between energy stored, spring constant and extension for a linear system: energy stored in a stretched spring (J) = ½ × spring constant (N/m) × (extension(m))2 M1c, M3b, M3c, M3d

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